keith-ballard

Vietnam

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 01:05:41 GMT

Vietnam is a booming country that has seen sweeping market reforms since the 1980s, as the Communist government has moved from a command-style economic system to a more open capitalist system without relinquishing political control.

As in China, the success of this strategy has been remarkable: Over the past 30 years, Vietnam, a country of 92.7 million people (2016, World Bank), has transformed from an impoverished, war-ravaged country to a newly industrialized “tiger cub” with one of the most dynamic economies in the world. Between 1990 and 2016, Vietnam’s GDP grew by a whopping 3,303 percent, the second-fastest growth rate worldwide, only surpassed by China.

The country’s continued economic rise is not guaranteed and remains dependent on a variety of factors, including sustained levels of foreign direct investments, political stability, infrastructure development, and the modernization of a stifling regulatory system plagued by corruption.

Crucially, Vietnam needs to upskill its labor force, which is rapidly shifting with approximately 1 million agricultural workers transitioning into industry and services each year.

Expanding access to education and vocational training are paramount objectives of the government. The number of students in higher education grew from around 133,000 students in 1987 to 2.12 million students by 2015. Despite its meteoric economic growth, Vietnam remains a relatively poor country with a per capita GDP of USD $2,186 – less than half of that of Thailand’s GDP, for example (2016, World Bank).

However, the economic outlook for Vietnam looks bright. The professional services firm Pricewaterhouse Coopers, for instance, recently forecast that Vietnam to continue to grow at a rapid pace over the coming decades, and become the world’s 20th largest economy by 2050.

Nominally still a Socialist Republic under Communist one-party rule, Vietnam is expected by many to eventually follow the development trajectory of Asia’s “tiger economies” (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong).

One of Vietnam’s strategies to achieve further economic growth is the modernization of its education system, which is considered to be lagging behind other Southeast Asian countries by outside observers. Education features prominently in Vietnam’s current “socio-economic development strategy for 2011-2020”, which seeks to advance human capital development, boost enrollments in higher education, and modernize education to meet the needs of the country’s industrialization in a global environment. The goals of several of the current education reforms were already laid down in a government directive from 2005 on the “Comprehensive Reform of Higher Education in Vietnam, 2006–2020”.

Among the bold reforms currently enacted are the establishment of new accreditation and quality assurance mechanisms, the creation of a national qualifications framework, and a drastic increase in higher education enrollments by 125 percent, from 200 students per 10,000 people in 2010 to 450 students per 10,000 people by 2020.

Teaching quality will be improved by requiring almost all higher education instructors to hold masters or doctoral degrees by 2020.

Labor force development is being prioritized with large-scale investments in applied, employment-geared training.

70 to 80 percent of the student population should be enrolled in applied programs by 2020.

The secondary education system is also undergoing major reforms, most notably with regards to high school graduation examinations and university admissions.

Another goal of the current reforms is the internationalization of Vietnam’s still somewhat insular higher education system. The government is trying to expand English-language education in Vietnam, and promote transnational cooperation and exchange with countries like Australia, France, the U.S., Japan, and Germany. Vietnam has also acceded to international education agreements, such as the Asia-Pacific Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications in Higher Education. Study abroad of Vietnamese students and scholars is explicitly promoted, while the government simultaneously seeks to increase the number of foreign students and researchers in Vietnam.

These fast-evolving developments have implications for international credential evaluation and student recruitment in Vietnam. To better understand these changes, this article describes current trends and developments in Vietnamese education and student mobility and provides an overview of the Vietnamese education system.

OUTBOUND STUDENT MOBILITY

Vietnam is currently one of the most dynamic outbound student markets worldwide, trailing mega sending countries like China and India only in sheer size. Between 1999 and 2016, the number of outbound Vietnamese degree students exploded by fully 680 percent, from 8,169 to 63,703 students (UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Outbound degree mobility in China, by comparison, grew by 549 percent during the same period, while the number of outbound Indian degree students increased by only 360 percent.

This drastic increase in Vietnamese mobility reflects the country’s swift economic growth, as well as of the shortcomings of its education system. Common outbound mobility drivers, such as an emerging middle class able to afford study abroad and rapid massification of education coupled with limited access to high-quality education, are prominent in the country. Vietnam has the fastest growing middle class in Southeast Asia, projected to grow to anywhere between 33 and 44 million people by 2020, depending on the estimate. Tertiary enrollments, meanwhile, tripled between 1999 and 2015. The number of youths seeking higher education in Vietnam has increased significantly, swelling the ranks of potential mobile students. Given Vietnam’s economic growth projections, student mobility is bound to increase in the years ahead, especially as the country seeks to internationalize its economy and education system.

Access and Quality Concerns

Access limitations and quality problems in Vietnam are also factors facilitating outbound mobility. Despite a growing number of new higher education institutions, Vietnam’s education system does not sufficiently absorb the burgeoning youth population of a country in which 37 percent of the population is below the age of 25. Vietnamese universities reportedly only had capacity for one-third of applicants in past years. Merely 6.7 percent of Vietnamese above the age of 25 held tertiary degree attainment in 2009, a considerably lower percentage than in other regional countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines.

Over the past decades, the fast-paced growth of the education system has intensified quality problems at overcrowded universities and led to the mushrooming of low-quality private providers. Harvard researchers Vallely and Wilkinson in 2008 described the Vietnamese education system as being in a state of crisis, characterized by international isolation, a lack of high-quality universities, inadequate foreign language training, bureaucratic obstacles, and curricula that do not prepare students for entry into the labor force. According to recent Vietnamese media reports, the majority of new university graduates are presently unable to find work, often due to a lack of skills.

These shortcomings are likely to motivate aspiring Vietnamese students to seek education abroad. Another push factor is the country’s accelerating demand for English language education, which is, as of now, not sufficiently addressed by the overburdened Vietnamese system, even though the government in 2016 directed public universities to introduce English as a second language of instruction.

The government, now more keen to promote internationalization, recently expanded a number of scholarship programs. The so-called 911 project, launched in 2013, for instance, is slated to fund study abroad of 10,000 Ph.D. candidates until 2020 with up to USD $15,000 annually per student. Despite these increases in funding, however, the vast majority of Vietnamese outbound students were, as of recently, still self-funded. While scholarships awarded by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education were, as of 2016, predominantly given to students going to Russia, self-funded students prefer Western destinations. More than 60 percent of Vietnamese mobile degree-seeking students currently opt to study in English-speaking Western countries, according to the data provided by the UNESCO Institute of Statistics.

Study Destinations

The U.S. has, over the past decade, become the most popular destination choice among Vietnamese students enrolled in degree programs abroad, despite the high costs of study in the U.S. and the legacy of the Vietnam War. Fully 30 percent of outbound Vietnamese degree students (19,336) studied in the U.S. in 2015 (UIS).1 The Open Doors data of the Institute of International Education, which includes both degree and non-degree seeking students, shows that enrollments of Vietnamese students surged by a remarkable 1,009 percent between 2000/01 and 2016/17, making Vietnam at present the 6th largest sender of foreign students to the United States.

There are currently 22,438 Vietnamese students enrolled at U.S. institutions, predominantly at the undergraduate level. Many of them study at community colleges, where Vietnamese constitute the second largest group of foreign students, accounting for almost 10 percent of all international enrollments. Business majors are the preferred choice among Vietnamese students (30 percent of enrollments).

Surveys indicate that Vietnamese students consider the U.S. a “scientifically advanced country” with an “excellent higher education system” and a “wide range of schools and programs,” even though high costs remain a major concern for many students. Beyond that, student mobility to the U.S. also appears to be influenced by existing migrant networks – the largest numbers of Vietnamese students are enrolled at institutions in California and Texas, the two U.S. states with the highest concentration of Vietnamese immigrants.

The next most popular study destinations among Vietnamese degree students include Australia (13,147 students in 2015 as per the UIS), Japan (6,071 students in 2014) and France (5,284 students in 2015). With the exception of France, where enrollments remained relatively flat, the number of Vietnamese degree students in these countries has increased strongly in recent years, if at smaller growth rates than in the United States. In Australia, the number of students increased by 75 percent between 2009 and 2015, while in Japan the number grew 110 percent between 2009 and 2014. Canada also experienced strong growth – the number of Vietnamese students jumped by 203 percent between 2005 and 2015, according to the Canadian government.

It should be noted that the Japanese government reports vastly higher international student numbers (53,807 Vietnamese students in 2016) than the UIS and could, by some measures, be considered the primary study destination of Vietnamese students. But the Japanese statistics include a variety of different student categories in non-degree programs, including students enrolled in language training institutes and university-prep programs. The number of tertiary students is much smaller: 25,228 Vietnamese students studied at Japanese language training institutes, for instance.

INBOUND MOBILITY

Vietnam is currently not a major destination country for international students. To attract more foreign students and researchers, the government has removed some obstacles, for instance, by allowing universities to set their admission standards for international students, instead of requiring Vietnamese-language entrance examinations. That said, Vietnam’s lack of top quality universities and few English-taught programs mean that Vietnam is not an obvious destination choice for international students beyond students studying Vietnamese culture and language. The largest numbers of foreign degree students in Vietnam presently come from neighboring Laos (1,772 students) and Cambodia (318 students). (2016, UIS). Both countries have sizeable Vietnamese-speaking minorities.

TRANSNATIONAL EDUCATION (TNE)

TNE in Vietnam is growing, even though very few reputable foreign institutions have established actual branch campuses in the country so far. Australia’s RMIT University is among the few foreign-owned universities in Vietnam. Other foreign-backed universities include the Vietnamese-German University, Vietnam-Japan University, and the Fulbright University Vietnam, a non-profit university recently set up by Harvard University.

At the program level, the number of government-approved TNE programs has increased significantly in recent years growing by 45 percent between 2010 and 2011 alone, with universities from countries like France, the UK, and Australia being the main partners in twinning agreements and transnational degree programs. Also of note is that the French accreditation agency HCERES in 2017 granted accreditation to four Vietnamese public universities.

TNE in Vietnam continues to face some challenges, including quality problems, high taxation, lengthy approval processes and a difficult regulatory environment in which the Communist party seeks to maintain control over foreign institutions, while simultaneously trying to attract more foreign providers to Vietnam. In recent years, growing numbers of questionable foreign schools and diploma mills started to proliferate in the country.2 In response, the Vietnamese government in 2012 imposed restrictions on foreign institutions, such as a minimum initial investment volume of USD $15 million for higher education institutions, minimum tuition fees of USD $7,500 per annum, and enrollment caps that limited the number of Vietnamese students at foreign high schools to 20 percent of the student body.

In 2017, the government further tightened these restrictions and required foreign institutions to front a minimum investment of USD $45 million. Enrollment caps for elementary and secondary providers, on the other hand, are currently slated to be removed – a development expected to lead to a significant increase in the number of international high schools in Vietnam, especially since demand for foreign-language schooling is booming.

IN BRIEF: VIETNAM’S EDUCATION SYSTEM

Administration of the Education System

Until the 1980s, Vietnam’s education system was modeled after the system of the Soviet Union. Economic liberalization policies enacted after the 1986 Đổi mới reforms have since led to far-reaching changes in various sectors, including the education system, but the country remains under the firm control of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV). Many aspects of the education system, thus, are highly centralized and directed by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in Hanoi.

The MOET is responsible for most aspects of schooling and the implementation of education policy. Until recently, the ministry exercised far-reaching control over higher education institutions; a fact often cited as a hindrance for the modernization of education in Vietnam. The MOET stipulated rigid curricula and textbooks, admissions guidelines and staffing. Curricula, for example, continued to include mandatory Marxist-Leninist content, said to be of little practical relevance in the labor market

However, the government has in recent years scaled back various regulations, and plans to increase the autonomy of higher education institutions (HEIs) “in terms of training, scientific research, organization, personnel, finance and international cooperation.” The government has recently granted HEIs increased autonomy to determine their curricula and admissions quotas. Despite these changes, observers have noted that the system so far continues to be characterized by a high degree of bureaucratic centralization and a tendency to retain socialist curricula, even atVietnam’s privileged National Universities, which technically already had greater autonomy than other institutions since their inception in 1993.

In addition to universities overseen by the MOET, a sizeable number of public institutions are under the purview of other government bodies, such as people’s committees and different line ministries overseeing specialized institutions. Since 1998, large parts of vocational education and training are overseen by the Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA).

Education Funding

Vietnam has ramped up education spending significantly in recent years. Education expenditures as a percentage of GDP increased from 3.57 percent in 2000 to 5.18 percent in 2006, and have since then remained above 5 percent, reaching 5.7 percent in 2013. Education spending as a percentage of the government budget has also been growing. Education is the largest expenditure item on the state budget and stood at 20 percent of total government expenditures in 2015 (USD $10 billion), a far higher percentage than the global average of 14.1 percent (2013).

Increased funding for education and other reform measures have led to tremendous improvements in enrollment rates and educational quality. At the elementary level, for instance, great progress has been made in closing gaps between urban centers and rural regions – the net elementary intake rate in rural regions like the Central Highlands and the Mekong Delta increased from 58 and 80 percent in 2000/01 to 99 and 94 percent in 2012/2013. Repetition and drop-out rates fell significantly throughout the country.

The net intake rate for lower-secondary education increased from 69.5 percent in 2000/01 to 92 percent in 2012/13 nationwide, despite lingering disparities between rural and urban regions at the secondary level. Other achievements include significant improvements in student-teacher ratios and an increase of youth literacy from 93 percent in 2002 to 97 percent in 2012. The upper-secondary school graduation rate stood at 95 percent in 2015/16.

Underscoring recent improvements in educational quality at the secondary level, Vietnam ranked 17th out of 65 countries, ahead of Western countries like Australia, the U.S., or France, when for the first time it participated in the OECD PISA study in 2012. Some observers have argued that the remarkably good results do not truly reflect educational quality in Vietnam and may be the outcome of the test’s emphasis on mathematics and its standardized testing format. Others contend that Vietnam’s success is based on smart curricular design and should serve as a model for lower-ranked ASEAN countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand.

Elementary Education

Elementary education(tiểu học) in Vietnam begins at the age of six and lasts five years (grades 1-5, until age 11). Subjects taught include Vietnamese, mathematics, moral education, natural and social sciences, arts, and physical education, as well as history and geography in grades four and five. In 2017, the MOET announced that it would introduce foreign language and computer training starting in grade three, and also offer minority languages as an elective subject.

The curriculum emphasizes rote memorization and the language of instruction is Vietnamese. Textbook learning increases in higher grades. Promotion is based on continuous assessment and year-end exams. A final exit examination used to be required until the 2000s but has since been abolished.

Until 2005, compulsory education in Vietnam ended with the completion of elementary education at the age of eleven (grade 5) – an early age by international standards. Vietnam’s education law of 2005 since stipulates universal and compulsory education until grade 9, but that objective has of yet not been achieved. Current reforms seek to universalize lower-secondary education by the end of the decade and implement compulsory education until age 15 (grade 9) throughout the country, beginning in 2020.

Lower Secondary Education

After completion of grade 5, pupils can continue their education in a four-year lower-secondary education cycle (trung học cơ sở) or enroll in short-term vocational training programs.

Admission to general lower-secondary education is open to all pupils who have completed elementary education. It lasts from grade six to grade nine and concludes with the award of a Lower Secondary Education Graduation Diploma (Bằng tốt nghiệp trung học cơ sở).

The curriculum includes Vietnamese, foreign language, mathematics, natural sciences, civics, history, geography, technology, computer science, arts, and physical education. A second foreign language and minority languages are offered as elective subjects. Students attend up to 30 45-minute classes per week, and annual promotion is based on teacher assessment and examinations. A final intermediate graduation examination used to be required for completing the program but is no longer in use since 2006.

General Upper-Secondary Education

Access to non-compulsory upper-secondary education is competitive and examination-based. The MOET has in recent years adopted various measures to streamline entrance and graduation examinations, and the system is currently undergoing frequent changes. Voluntary supplementary exams to gain “priority admission” at upper-secondary schools, for instance, were suspended in 2016.

Entry into public upper-secondary education nevertheless depends on rigorous entrance examinations. Competition is particularly fierce for coveted spots at prestigious “high schools for the gifted,” which only admit the very best students. Other highly selective institutions include specialized high schools that offer programs focused on subjects like foreign languages.

Students who do not score high enough in the entrance exams to be admitted into upper secondary schools in the general track may seek admission to vocational upper-secondary programs (discussed below) or have to attend expensive private schools.

General secondary education encompasses grades 10 to 12 (ages 15-18) and concludes with the award of the Secondary Education Graduation Diploma (Bằng Tốt Nghiệp Phổ Thông Trung Học). Programs are usually offered in three different streams or subject groups (technology, natural science, and social sciences and foreign languages).

All course requirements in specialization subjects used to be stipulated by the MOET and involved a total of 6 hours per week in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology in the natural science track; and literature, history, geography, and foreign languages in the social sciences and foreign language track. Current reforms, announced in 2017, however, will allow for greater individual customization with elective concentration subjects now making up one-third of the curriculum. Beyond concentration subjects, all students take a core curriculum that includes subjects ranging from Vietnamese to foreign language (mostly English), mathematics, and physical and military education.

Upper-secondary students attend up to 30 45-minute classes per week. Promotion is based on teacher assessment and year-end exams. Students who fail the annual examinations twice have to repeat the year. High school graduation requires passing a rigorous final secondary school graduation examination, which is also used to determine admission to higher education (see section on university admission below for more details).

Secondary Grading Scale

Vocational Education and Training

Several options for vocational education and training (VET) exist in Vietnam. Both the MOET and MOLISA oversee a variety of VET programs, ranging from short-term continuing education programs to formal training programs at both the secondary and post-secondary levels. Short-term vocational certificate programs (ngắn hạn) offered at vocational training centers are open to elementary school graduates, whereas longer programs (up to three years) offered at vocational schools typically require completion of at least lower-secondary education for admission. These longer programs lead to the award of a Vocational Training Diploma (Bằng Tốt nghiệp Nghề) – a credential that qualifies for employment in a number of trades.

Lower secondary graduates can also enroll in more academically oriented vocational/technical high school programs, referred to as professional secondary or intermediate professional education, that combine vocational training with general education. These programs lead to the award of a Professional Secondary Education Graduation Diploma (Bằng Tốt nghiệp Trung học Chuyên nghiệp), last three to four years, and usually require passing an entrance examination. Passing of the final national secondary school graduation examination upon completion of the program gives access to university education, but most students in the vocational track continue their studies at junior colleges. Students who already hold a general secondary education diploma can earn a professional secondary diploma in shortened one to two-year programs.

At the post-secondary level, VET is typically provided at junior colleges (Cao đẳng), although college-level programs are also increasingly offered by universities. Programs last between two and three and a half years and lead to the award of an Associate degree (Cử nhân Cao đẳng), or a Junior College Graduation Diploma (BBằng Tốt Nghiệp Cao Đẳng). Programs are geared towards employment and include a practical training component of up to 30 percent. Fields of study include business administration, banking, accounting, tourism, information technology, or health care. Admission is based on the upper-secondary school graduation examination.

Vietnam’s Quest for Vocational Education and Training (VET)

Vietnam is in urgent need of skilled labor – a shortage that is fueled by the country’s rapid economic growth and the increasing presence of foreign companies. Vietnam’s labor force composition has changed drastically in recent years. Employment in the agricultural sector dropped from 69 percent in 1997 to 48 percent in 2011 with about 1 million workers transitioning from agriculture to industry and service sectors annually as of 2014. The majority of the country’s workforce, however, is presently lacking sufficient skills and technical expertise in a variety of fields, ranging from information and communications technology to banking, accounting, tourism or health care. Fully 83 percent of Vietnam’s labor force was still unskilled in 2012, and the country’s labor productivity (an indicator of human capital development) was 37 percent of that of Thailand and 23.3 percent of that of Malaysia in 2010, according to the OECD.

Vietnam’s government has, thus, made human capital development a top priority and seeks to catch up with other countries in the ASEAN community. It has allocated increased funds to VET and pushed the creation of new vocational training institutions, the number of which expanded to 165 vocational colleges, 301 vocational secondary schools, 874 vocational training centers and various other training programs under the supervision of MOLISA by 2014. The government has also sought assistance from countries and institutions like Australia, Germany, Korea, Japan, the EU and the Asian Development Bank in building a modernized VET system. It intends to boost the percentage of workers that have undergone formal vocational training to 60 to 65 percent of the workforce by 2020 while expanding enrollments in career-oriented study programs to 70 to 80 percent of all students in Vietnam.

Vietnam’s quest for vocational training is also driven by increased demand for VET among Vietnam’s youth. Poor employment prospects for university graduates, in particular, have caused growing numbers of high school graduates to opt for vocational education instead of pursuing an academic career. As the online newspaper VietNamNet has noted, even university graduates increasingly opt to put their “… bachelor’s degree into a drawer and go back to vocational school because industrial zones and factories only need skilled workers, not bachelor degree graduates”. Between 2000/01 and 2009/10 alone, the number of students enrolled in vocational training schools and professional secondary programs increased by 132 percent.

Admission to Higher Education

Progression from secondary to higher education in Vietnam is highly competitive and based on demanding examinations that place great pressure on students, similar to the examination system in China. Examination periods have been dubbed “suicide season,” due to increasing numbers of student suicides after the announcement of university entrance examinations each summer. In 2012, only 30 percent of test takers passed the entrance exams, according to VietNamNet.

These examination pressures are one of several reasons that caused the Vietnamese government to enact many sweeping and ongoing reforms in university admissions. Until 2015, students first sat for a secondary school graduation examination in May/June, and a subsequent national university entrance examination in July (the so-called “three commons” exam). Since 2015, the university entrance exam has been abolished and merged with the secondary graduation exam into a single national secondary school graduation exam (Kỳ thi trung học phổ thông quốc gia), now used to determine university admission. The change was intended to simplify the strenuous admissions process and lower the costs for universities, as well as students, many of whom were relying on expensive prep-schools to prepare for the university entrance exams. More students in rural regions can now also take the test locally, instead of having to travel to Hanoi or Saigon to sit for entrance examinations.

The structure and content of the new examination has undergone some changes since it was first announced. The most recent format (2017) of the “2-in-1” national graduation exam includes five test subjects: Three compulsory subjects (mathematics, Vietnamese language, and foreign language) and two stream-specific combination subjects, which include natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) and social sciences (history, geography and civics). Students who intend to apply for university take exams in four subjects, but can also choose to sit for a fifth subject to increase options for admission. Students who do not wish to move on to university can opt to graduate with three test subjects.

The examinations take place in June or July, are administered by the provincial Departments of Education, and involve multiple choice and essay questions. The minimum passing score in each subject is 5 out of 10. Universities typically base admission on the cumulative score in three subjects they consider relevant for the chosen major. The higher the test scores, the better the chances of admission into first-choice institutions (students can apply to multiple schools). The minimum threshold for university admission set by the MOET is a cumulative score of 15 out of 30 in three subjects, but requirements vary by institution and are often much higher, with prestigious universities only accepting students with a score of 29 or higher. Junior Colleges usually have lower score requirements than universities (the official minimum threshold score is 12).

The government intends to lessen the importance of examinations and has announced that national graduation exams will, in fact, be abolished altogether after 2020, at which point admission will be based on overall student performance during senior high school, rather than one final high stakes examination. The content of the final examinations will be incorporated into the high school curriculum. Given the frequent changes in university admissions in recent years, it remains to be seen, however, if and when these changes will be realized.

It should also be noted that the MOET has given public universities the freedom to determine their admission requirements beyond graduation exam results. Some large and prestigious universities, including the Vietnam National University (Hanoi) or the Foreign Trade University, for example, now utilize independent entrance examinations. Since average scores and pass rates in the national graduation exams held in 2017 were much higher than in previous years, growing numbers of universities may start using their own, more selective admissions tests.

Higher Education Institutions

Types

The types of HEIs in Vietnam include junior colleges (trường cao đẳng – community colleges, teacher training and other specialized colleges), mono-specialized universities (đại học đơn ngành), multi-disciplinary universities (đại học đa ngành), and postgraduate research institutes (học viện). According to Vietnam’s 2005 Higher Education Law, HEIs are public, private, or people-founded (tuition-funded institutions run by nongovernmental organizations like trade unions, cooperatives or youth organizations). There are also two public Open Universities (HCMC Open University and Hanoi Open University), which offer programs for students who scored too low in the high school exams to be admitted to regular universities. Open programs (mộ rồng) may also be offered at other universities.

Largest Universities, Rankings, and Research

The two biggest university systems in Vietnam are the Vietnam National University, HCMC and Vietnam National University, Hanoi – both public institutions with multiple mono-disciplinary member universities. VNU in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), the country’s largest city, has a total enrollment of approximately 61,500 full-time students and offers at least 120 bachelor’s programs, as well as a large variety of master’s and doctoral programs. VNU-Hanoi is smaller with about 34,000 students, according to the MOET. It reportedly has an acceptance rate of about 30 percent and charges tuition fees of USD $1,000 annually for bachelor’s programs.

A recent non-governmental Vietnamese university ranking declared VNU Hanoi, Ton Duc Thang University and the Vietnam National University of Agriculture as the best universities in the country, but has been heavily criticized for its methodology. No Vietnamese universities are included among the world’s top 1,000 in the most common world university rankings. The Vietnamese government is trying to change that and has selected three universities, the Vietnamese-German University, the Hanoi University of Science and Technology, and the Vietnam-Japan University, to be developed into world-class research universities.

Academic Research in Vietnam is still predominantly undertaken at research institutes (a legacy of the old Soviet-based system). Universities have since 1998 been allowed to offer postgraduate programs, but the academic research sector remains, as of now, relatively underdeveloped and underfunded by international comparison. The output of research publications by Vietnamese scholars, for instance, is far below the output of other regional countries like Thailand. Student enrollment in advanced study programs is still relatively small if growing briskly. While there were only 30,683 master’s students and 2,505 Ph.D. candidates nationwide in 2009, the latest statistics publicized by the MOET show that this number has jumped to 105,801 master’s students (6 percent of all enrollments) and 15,112 doctoral students (0.85 percent of enrollments) in 2017. In Thailand, by comparison, master’s and doctoral students accounted for 8.5 percent and 1.1 of all enrollments in 2016. MOET officials in 2016 expressed concerns that this rapid growth has been achieved at the expense of quality and led to an “inflation” of inadequately trained Ph.D.s.

Rapid Growth and Staffing Problems

Vietnam’s university system has expanded dramatically over the past decades – from 101 public HEIs, zero private institutions, and 133,000 students in 1987 to 357 public universities and colleges, 88 private HEIs and approximately 2.12 million students in 2015.

This swift massification has over the past decades resulted in overcrowded universities and inadequate teacher to student ratios, but the situation has improved somewhat in recent years. In the public sector, growth in enrollments has recently slowed, and the number of students has, in fact, decreased from about 2 million in 2014 to 1.85 million in 2015, likely due to a shift in enrollments towards the non-tertiary VET sector. Between 2005 and 2014, faculty growth in the higher education sector has also outpaced student enrollments –teaching staff at HEIs increased by 88 percent compared to a 70 percent increase in students.

According to statistics published by the General Statistics Office of Vietnam, the student to teacher ratio in higher education has improved noticeably in recent years and stood at 1 to 22.7 in 2015. The official goal is to decrease this ratio to 1:20 by 2020. Between 2016 and 2017, the number of instructors at public HEIs increased by 4.6 percent. But it remains to be seen how the goal of decreasing student to teacher ratios can be aligned with the government’s simultaneous goal to more than double student enrollments from 2 percent of the population in 2010 to 4.5 percent of the population in 2020. Thus far, these enrollment goals remain a work in progress, despite rapid massification. Students accounted for roughly 2.6 percent of the population in 2014.4

Another issue is the quality of teaching in Vietnam. In 2009, less than half of teaching staff in higher education held graduate degrees. The situation has since improved. In 2012, 46 percent of instructors held master’s degree, and 14 percent held doctoral degrees. However, Vietnamese universities are currently struggling to recruit qualified instructors, particularly those holding Ph.D. degrees. The government plans to increase the number of instructors with master’s and doctoral degrees to 60 and 35 percent of all teaching staff, respectively, by 2020. But the current shortage of teachers may slow down the achievement of this goal. Lecturers in Vietnam tend to be poorly paid, and holders of doctoral degrees often have more lucrative employment opportunities in other fields.

Private Institutions

The first non-state HEI in Vietnam, Thang Long University in Hanoi, opened in 1988. Due to the sensitive political nature of privatization in Communist Vietnam, non-state HEIs were at first limited to people-founded and semi-public institutions (tuition-funded institutions under state control). Private for-profit HEIs were not allowed to operate until 2005. Since that change, the number of private institutions has expanded quickly and reached 88 private HEIs as of 2015. Despite this growth, however, total enrollments in the private sector stood at only about 13 percent in 2015 (down from 15 percent in 2010), according to government statistics. This is significantly below the government’s target of 40 percent by 2020.

Many of Vietnam’s private HEIs are profit-driven “demand-absorbing institutions,” that is, institutions that provide access to higher education, but not at the same level of academic quality or rigor offered by most public institutions. Private institutions are often expensive and presently cannot effectively compete with the much more popular top-tier public universities. Many private HEIs concentrate on niche fields and areas where public universities fail to meet growing demand (business administration, foreign languages and computer and information technology). In 2012, enrollment levels at private HEIs were so critical that the Vietnam Private Universities Association issued a petition urging the prime minister to allow private universities to lower their admission standards to recruit more students.

Academic Corruption in Vietnam

Vietnam is a fairly corrupt country by international standards. It was ranked the 33rd most corrupt country out of 176 countries included in Transparency International’s (TI) 2016 Global Corruption Perceptions Index. Breakneck economic transformation, a lack of political accountability, red tape and a large-sized, poorly paid state bureaucracy are among the factors that facilitate corruption in Vietnam. The U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor noted in 2016 that corruption “continued to be a major problem” and that “nepotism and bribery in the public sector were prevalent throughout the country,” while “nearly half (46 percent) of foreign companies cited corruption as their greatest challenge”.

Education is considered the second most corrupt sector in Vietnam after the police. Bribery to ensure university admission or grade improvements is common due to underpaid educators being susceptible to corruption. Fully 61 percent of Vietnamese respondents surveyed by TI confirmed that parents pay bribes to teachers or school administrators. Some reported bribes were as high as USD $3,000 even for admission to desirable elementary schools.

Other widely reported problems include plagiarism in higher education, the fraudulent acquisition of academic degrees, manipulated budget estimates and the ‘leakage’ of funds from public procurement projects (teaching materials and construction of facilities, etc.).

These forms of corruption tend to erode educational quality and hold back economic development. Rampant corruption is also political legitimacy problem for the CPV. The government has in recent years enacted various policy measures to combat corruption and made some high profile arrests, at least one of which resulted in the death penalty. It remains to be seen, however, how effective these measures will be in curbing the endemic levels of corruption in Vietnam.

Quality Assurance: The New Accreditation System

One of the reforms currently enacted in higher education is the implementation of new quality assurance mechanisms for HEIs. In 2004, the MOET initiated a new accreditation process based on institutional self-assessments and internal quality assurance mechanisms that are externally evaluated by accreditation agencies. Four years later, a National Accreditation Council was established under the MOET. By 2009, 110 Vietnamese universities had established internal quality assurance centers, and 20 universities had received accreditation.

The process has since undergone various changes. At present, accreditation is conducted by four accreditation centers under the guidance of the MOET’s General Department of Education Testing and Accreditation (GDETA). They are the Center for Education Accreditation – VNU-Hanoi, the Center for Education Accreditation – VNU-HCMC, the Center for Education Accreditation – Da Nang University, and the Center for Education Accreditation of the Association of Vietnam Universities and Colleges. These four agencies are tasked with accrediting HEIs, as well as vocational schools in the VET sector. Assessment criteria include a clear mission statement and adequate resources, staffing and curricula to realize this mission and prepare graduates for employment, as well as compliance with state regulations on international collaborations, and commitment to the socio-economic development of local communities and Vietnam. (For a sample of a self-assessment report, see the report of Tan Tao University, submitted in 2016).

Accreditation is granted for five-year periods and is mandatory for all HEIs in Vietnam. Due to a lack of resources and staff, progress in accreditation, however, has thus far been sluggish, even though more than 90 percent of Vietnamese institutions have established internal quality assurance centers. In March 2017, the MOET promised that 35 percent of universities and 10 percent of junior colleges would be evaluated and accredited until the end of the year. Program accreditation has also been introduced but is still relatively uncommon as of 2017.

Other Reforms: New Credit System and Grading Scale

There have been several other changes in higher education over the past decade. In 2007, the MOET introduced a new U.S.-style credit system at HEIs that gives students greater freedom to structure their curricula. Whereas students under the previous system stayed together as a group and followed the same pre-set curriculum throughout the program, they since can choose more freely between credit-based courses. The new curricula include mandatory and elective courses worth 2 to 4 credits. One credit represents at least 50 minutes of in-classroom study and 100 minutes of homework, taken over a 15-week semester. 30 credits represent one year of study at the undergraduate level. Most programs at Vietnamese universities are taken over two semesters per year (commonly from September to January and from February to June).

Together with the new credit system, the MOET mandated a new 4-point grading scale to be used alongside the old 0-10 grading scale. While courses can still be graded according to the old 0-10 scale, scores now need also to be converted into the new scale, and the final cumulative average of degree programs must be expressed in the 0-4 scale, respectively the corresponding letter grade. The official conversion between the two scales is listed below.

Vietnamese HEIs have since adopted different ways of indicating grades on their transcripts. While some schools have fully switched to the 1-4 scale, many list course grades according to both the 0-10 and the 1-4 scales on their documents. The final cumulative grade of the degree program is usually indicated in the new letter grade (A, B, C) or the corresponding descriptor (excellent, good, average). Some universities have also slightly adapted the 1-4 scale by using pluses and minuses (A+, A, A- etc.), similar to U.S. grading scales.

Development of a National Qualifications Framework

In November of 2016, Vietnam’s Prime Minister approved the implementation of a National Qualification Framework (NQF) developed by the MOET and MOLISA. The 8-level framework is aligned with the ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF) and intended to ease the international transferability of credentials. The framework also seeks to strengthen the quality of academic programs by defining learning outcomes and benchmark criteria for qualifications awarded at the different levels. As a first step towards implementation, these learning outcomes and benchmark criteria will now need to be defined. The British Council is presently assisting with the implementation of the framework. Another objective the government put forward alongside the NQF is the future shortening of university curricula . If implemented, these reforms could decrease the length of a standard bachelor’s degree in Vietnam from four to three years.

THE HIGHER EDUCATION DEGREE SYSTEM

At its core, the current degree system in Vietnam resembles the system of the United States. It includes an intermediate college degree, a four-year standard bachelor’s degree and a two-year master’s degree followed by a terminal research doctorate. All degree certificates from recognized Vietnamese universities must be officially approved and signed by the MOET.

Associate Degree (Cử Nhân Cao Đẳng) or Junior College Graduation Diploma (Bằng Tốt Nghiệp Cao Đẳng). Programs are between 2 and 3.5 years in length and are known as “short-term training” in Vietnam. They are offered at junior colleges and some universities and require a minimum of 90 credits for three-year Curricula are typically applied and employment-geared in nature and include a practical training component. Graduates can be exempted from two years of study when transferring into bachelor’s programs at universities.
Bachelor’s degree (Bằng Cử Nhân). Bachelor programs are studied at universities and are typically four years in length in standard academic disciplines. Graduates receive a University Graduation Certificate (Bằng Tốt Nghiệp Đại Học) that indicates the specific degree awarded. Credit requirements vary slightly from institution to institution but range from 120 to 140 credits. The final cumulative GPA must be 2.0 or higher for graduation. Curricula include a general education component in addition to specialized subjects. Programs may also include a thesis or internship and a graduation examination. Bachelor of Engineering (Bằng Kỹ Sư) programs are five years in length and require a minimum of 150 credits. Some bachelor programs can be studied in part-time mode.
Master’s degree (Bằng Thạc sĩ). Admission into master’s program requires a bachelor’s degree and the passing of an entrance examination. Most programs are two years in length, but some programs in disciplines like engineering, for instance, may have a duration of 3 years. Part-time programs also last three Standard programs usually require between 40 and 45 credits for graduation and require the completion of a thesis.
Doctor of Philosophy (tiến sĩ). Admission to doctoral research programs typically requires a master’s degree and the passing of an entrance examination. Programs have a minimum duration of two years with most being three years in length, even though candidates may take longer to graduate. Bachelor’s degree students with exceptionally high grades may also be admitted into doctoral programs, in which case the program lasts at least four years and incorporates a master’s degree. Completion of doctoral programs involves a set amount of coursework and preparation of a dissertation.

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

First-degree programs in professions like medicine, dentistry, architecture, or pharmacy are long single-tier university programs of five or six-year duration entered after high school. Titles awarded include the bác sĩ (Medical Doctor), nha sĩ (Doctor of Dental Medicine) and dược sĩ (Pharmacist).

Medical education programs in Vietnam are six years in length and include a basic science component of two years followed by clinical theory and clinical practice in higher semesters. Admission at top universities is highly selective, but some second-tier universities admit students based on lower examinations scores . Shorter four-year programs have recently been introduced for assistant doctors with prior work experience. These programs are intended to train community physicians .

Graduation from medical programs requires passing a final examination conducted by the university. Licensure as a general practitioner requires 18 months of practice at a hospital or comparable institution after graduation. There are no separate licensing exams. Training in medical specialties lasts up to 4 years, depending on the specialty. The most common avenue for graduate medical education in Vietnam is a two-stage clinical training program offered by medical universities that leads to the award of a Specialist Certificate (Bằng Chuyên Khoa). Both stages (Specialist level 1 and Specialist level 2) last two years each.

Teacher Education

The practice requirements for teachers in Vietnam depend on the level of education. Pre-school and elementary school teachers must have a professional secondary school diploma in teaching (Bằng Tốt nghiệp Trung học Sư phạm), usually awarded by secondary teacher training schools. Lower-secondary school teachers commonly hold a teaching diploma from a pedagogical junior college (Cao đẳng Sư phạm), whereas upper-secondary teachers must have a bachelor’s degree in education from a pedagogical university (trường đại học Sư phạm). Holders of bachelor’s degrees in other disciplines can obtain a teaching qualification by earning a supplementary one-semester teacher training certificate (Chứng Chỉ Sư Phạm). In 2014 the MOET issued a directive that suspended this practice, but the ban seems to have been lifted, as universities are presently again offering these programs. Like other parts of Vietnam’s education system, teacher education is changing. The MOET seeks to strengthen teacher training while simultaneously trying to respond to teacher’s shortages. In 2012, authorities estimated that the country lacked 27,500 pre-school teachers alone.

Source:

https://wenr.wes.org/2017/11/education-in-vietnam

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Vietnam.

VIETNAM

2018 PISA SCORE
*Did not participate

2015 PISA SCORE
502.3

Ireland

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 01:00:03 GMT

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Ireland.

IRELAND

2018 PISA SCORE
504.7

2015 PISA SCORE
509.3

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Canada

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 00:56:59 GMT

By area, Canada is the second biggest country in the world, right after Russia. It’s a country filled with endless beauty that consists of 10 provinces and 3 territories, extending from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Pacific Ocean and into the Arctic Ocean. The education in Canada is excellent, and arguably among the world’s best with a well-funded and strong public education system.

Education is one of the highest priorities for the Canadian government. Canada ranked #10 in the world on PISA – much higher than its neighbor the United States.

For the most part, children in Canada attend kindergarten for a year or two at the age of four or five by choice. School then becomes mandatory as of grade one, which tends to be at the age of six years old.

Depending on the province, schools go up to either grade 11 or 12, generally until the age of 16 years old. Children then have the choice whether or not to continue onto higher education in universities, colleges or Cegep.

The Quality Of Education In Canada:

Canada is a highly developed country and offers one of the highest quality of education across the globe.

The Structure of the Canadian Education System

Although it varies from province to province, in general, Canadians must attend school until the age of 16, and it is comprised of four levels.

1. Pre-elementary

Pre-elementary or ‘kindergarten’ is the first stage of education in Canada and are offered to children between the ages of four to five before they start elementary school. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, this is mandatory, while everywhere else it is optional.

They are offered by either public, private or federal schools, depending on where you choose to send your child. In most areas, the first year of pre-elementary school is public and free, while certain provinces offer additional years free of charge, such as Quebec that offers free kindergarten for those from low-income families or for children with disabilities.

The teaching curriculum taught in pre-elementary in Canada is relaxed and is a chance for young students to learn the alphabet, basic skills such as counting, pre-reading, music, art, and how to play with others. These programs are specially designed to prepare children for their next step: primary school!

2. Primary

Primary education or elementary school is Canada is mandatory for children, starting in grade 1, generally at the ages of 6 or 7, and goes until grade 6 at the ages of 11 to 12 years old.

In Canada, students at this stage of education tend to have only one teacher that teaches them all subjects in the same classroom, with the same students. Special education classes are also available.

The pre-elementary curriculum covers subjects such as reading, math, English language (French in Quebec), history, science, music, social studies, physical education, and art. The difficulty of the courses increases as students advance in grades.

3. Secondary

Secondary education in Canada has two levels: junior high school and high school. Junior high school or intermediate education follows immediately after completion of elementary school. It’s a two-year stage of education that includes grades 7 and 8.

These two years give students the chance to adjust to the changes of switching classrooms and teachers throughout the day. The goal of this stage is to help students best prepare for their next step of education, with the difficulty of courses expected to increase greatly.

High school is the last part of secondary education that comes when students reach grade 8, and they stay in this stage for 4 years, until grade 11 or 12 (ages 16-18, depending on the student’s circumstances and province).

Students are required by law to stay in school until the age of 16, regardless of what grade they are in when they reach that age.

In Ontario and New Brunswick, the law is that students must stay in school until 18 or until they have successfully earned a high school diploma. In Quebec, secondary education ends in grade 11, which is generally followed by a two-year pre-university program known as Cegep.

Canadian high schools have carefully and thoughtfully designed their curriculum in order to best prepare students for higher education. Some provinces even offer job training at the high school level.

4. Post-Secondary Education

College and University

Upon graduating from high school, Canadian students are given the opportunity to apply to colleges and universities. College in Canada generally refers to a smaller community college or a specific trade school. Many students in Canada will attend college to further prepare themselves for university and obtain credits that can be transferred over.

University in Canada is a place for higher education where academic degrees can be obtained in a wide variety of subjects in a similar structure to that of the United States, starting with a bachelor’s degree, then a master’s degree, and finally a PhD as the highest level of education.

For public universities and colleges, they are mostly funded by provincial governments and the remainder is paid by minimal tuition fees, as well as research grants and partially from the federal government too.

Other Types Of Education in Canada

1. Vocational Schools

On top of community colleges offering a vocational training, students are also given the opportunity to learn a trade or vocation at technical schools that are spread out throughout Canada. Years ago, such programs did not require students to hold a high school diploma, but things have changed greatly in recent years.

Vocational schools allow Canadian students to learn the specific trade they are interested in and gain real life experience under a professional and qualified supervisor.

2. Private Schools

Private schools are also available in Canada, which means that they are schools that are not funded by the government, and often come with hefty price tags. This is the choice of the parent and student to decide whether or not this is a worthwhile investment for them to make.

Some parents feel as though their children need smaller classes, more special attention, or would like to send them to a specific school for personal reasons. In Quebec, those that do not wish to study in French and can afford it will often opt for a private school.

3. Religious Schools

Those that wish to send their children to religious schools in Canada must send them to private institutions for the most part, other than certain Catholic schools. These schools teach both the regular school curriculum as well as religious teachings associated with the specific religion of the school.

Age of Compulsory Education

The age of compulsory education varies from province to province in Canada. The youngest is five years old and goes up to seven years old (Manitoba) to legally have to attend school.

16 is generally the last year where students have to stay in school by law, however certain provinces require Canadian students to stay in school until the age of 18, such as Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Manitoba.

Which Provinces Differ from the Standard System?

While in most Canadian provinces, the system is rather standard, Quebec does things slightly differently.

Rather than staying in high school until grade 12 like most places, students graduate high school in grade 11, and then continue on their studies at another higher institution known as Cegep. This 2-year program is intended to offer students a chance to test the waters when it comes to career choices , and have an easier transition into university.

What Languages are Classes Taught in Canada?

The two official languages of Canada are English and French. International students are given the choice to decide to study in either language, and many schools in Canada offer studies in both languages.

In most of Canada, English is the main language of school-level education, although French is seen heavily throughout. In the province of Quebec, however, students are required to attend school fully in French until they complete their high school studies, and only under certain special circumstances may a Canadian student study in English, for example those that are in Quebec for a temporary period of time.

In general, newcomers and immigrants to Quebec have to attend school in French and are only given the chance to study in English by attending a private school.

Migrant students

Canada has a large number of migrants in its schools, with more than a third of young adults in Canada coming from immigrant families. And it’s been found that new immigrants tend to quickly integrate themselves and be just as successful as their native counterparts. Some believe that this incredible success is due to the equality and fairness for migrant students that is seen throughout schools in Canada.

Equal Opportunities

By giving all students equal opportunities to education, and treating everyone the same, Canada has proved to have little differences between its students — whether they come from more well-off local families or from minorities and immigrants that have more disadvantages.

While some people believe that high levels of immigration can potentially affect the success of students, when it comes to Canada, according to Prof Jerrim , immigrants may very well be key to its success. ‘‘These families have an immigrant ‘hunger’ to succeed, and their high expectations are likely to boost school results for their children’,” Jerrim explains.

Is Education in Canada Free?

Although there is not one single education system in Canada, basic public education is in fact free for residents of Canada until the 11th or 12th grade, depending on the province. International students, however, do have to pay the full fees.

Many colleges and universities are heavily subsidized, allowing students of all backgrounds an equal chance at higher education. The Canadian government is working on taking this even further and opening up more opportunities to young hopefuls to attend university .

Health Care and Education in Canada

Unlike the U.S., Canada has a publicly funded health insurance system , financed through taxpayer money. Each province has a different plan and specific regulations, but for the most part, it ensures basic medical care for all Canadian citizens. Additional health procedures outside of the ordinary are paid by the patient themselves, while sometimes their employer will cover these costs.

Not only does Canada take care of its citizens when it comes to healthcare, but they also offer daycare and nurseries for those in need as well as endless public schools, free of charge.

Conclusion

The rest of the world could learn a thing or two from Canada’s top-notch education system and how they treat everyone equally, taking care of all of their citizens and ensuring that everyone gets the education that they deserve. Canada’s impressive success rate didn’t come from nowhere!

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Canada.

CANADA

2018 PISA SCORE
516.7

2015 PISA SCORE
523.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Slovenia

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 00:53:39 GMT

Overview of the education system (EAG 2020)

On average, 71% of all upper secondary students enroll in VET programmes in Slovenia, a higher proportion than the OECD average of 42%.

In 2019, 44% of 25-34 year-olds had a tertiary degree in Slovenia compared to 45% on average across OECD countries.

In Slovenia, in 2018, 25-64 year-olds with a tertiary degree with income from full-time, full-year employment earned 65% more than full-time, full-year workers with upper secondary education compared to 54% on average across OECD countries.

In 2017, Slovenia invested a total of USD 9 897 per student on primary to tertiary institutions compared to USD 11 231 on average across OECD countries. This represents 4.2% of GDP, compared to 4.9% on average across OECD countries.

In 2018, 91% of 3-5 year-olds were enrolled in early childhood education and care programmes and primary education in Slovenia, compared to 88% on average across OECD countries.

Statutory salaries of teachers with maximum qualifications at the top of their salary scales are 67% - 80% higher than those of teachers with the minimum qualifications at the start of their career at pre-primary (ISCED 02), primary and general lower and upper secondary levels in Slovenia compared to 78-80% on average.

Educational System of Slovenia

There are three levels of education in Slovenia: primary, secondary and higher education. Applicants have a large set of options. They can decide, at which stage to complete their education and how to continue it depending on career plans or circumstances. The educational system in Slovenia is designed to produce students with a decent knowledge base, at whatever level they decide to complete their studies.

Primary School
Secondary Education
Higher Education

Primary School

9 years

National Knowledge Assessment Test

Secondary Education

According to the legislation of the Republic of Slovenia, all children must necessarily receive basic general education that is to finish primary school (in Slovene: osnovna šola). Training is free for both Slovenian citizens and foreign children. Studying at a primary school lasts 9 years at the age of 6 to 15 years. At the end of the 6th and 9th grades, schoolchildren have to pass the National Knowledge Assessment Test (in Slovene: Nacionalno preverjanje znanja). Based on the received assessment result and combined with the overall performance, a 9th-grade pupil is given permission to continue his/her education.

Lower Vocational Education

2 years

Secondary-School-Leaving Certificate, Final Examination

Lower Vocational School

If a pupil has only 7 years of primary school, he/she can receive lower vocational education, which is aimed at preparing children for the mastery of the future profession. Training on such a programme lasts 2 years and ends with a final examination, according to which children can continue studying at a vocational school.

Secondary Education

After graduating from a primary school, schoolchildren can choose what type of secondary education they want to receive depending on their primary school academic performance, career aspirations and plans. In Slovenia, there are 3 types of secondary education:

Secondary Vocational Education

3 years

Final Examination

Higher Education

Secondary vocational education (in Slovene: Srednje poklicno izobraževanje, SPI) is available for students who have finished a primary school or received lower vocational education. In secondary vocational educational institutions, students study for three years and master an applied profession such as carpenter, mechanic, glazier, hairdresser, baker, etc.

Vocational schools offer programmes that are supported in Slovenia at the national level. If the country experiences a lack of qualified personnel in a certain field of expertise, then students of corresponding study programmes can be trained in practice by a real employer. This facilitates the search for a job and helps students better solidify theoretical knowledge and soon feel engaged in the working process and the team. At the end of the studies, students must pass a final examination.

If a student has a desire to continue his/her education at a university or a vocational college, he/she must pass the general final examination (in Slovene: matura), which includes Slovenian Language, Mathematics and a Foreign Language. There are also paid preparatory courses (in Slovene: Maturitetni tečaj), during which students are trained to pass the exams.

Secondary Technical and Vocational Education
4 years

General Final Examination

Higher Education

Students can receive secondary technical and vocational education after completing studies at a primary school. The training lasts 4 years and is aimed at obtaining in-depth knowledge within a specific technical or economic profession.

At the end of studies, a professional final examination (in Slovene: Poklicna matura) should be passed. The result of this exam involves enrolling in a vocational college or university for a professional Bachelor's degree programme.

General Secondary Education

4 years

General Final Examination

Higher Education

Children can also receive general secondary education in grammar schools (gymnasiums). There are schoolchildren who want to continue their studies and receive higher education. That is why grammar schools are so popular among applicants. These are usually the schoolchildren who passed successfully the National Knowledge Assessment Test at a primary school and were successful in all disciplines.

At the General Final Examination (Matura), students take tests in the Slovenian Language and World Literature, Mathematics, English and two optional subjects. After graduating from a grammar school, students can enter a university.

Grammar schools:

In a general grammar school, students study general subjects, such as Slovenian Language, World Literature, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, History, Biology, etc.

In a classical grammar school, students, besides basic subjects, also study Latin and have more lectures on History and Philosophy.

Grammar schools with in-depth study of foreign languages or natural sciences.

Sport gymnasiums that are usually chosen by young professional athletes.

Source:

https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=SVN&treshold=10&topic=EO

https://2tm.eu/slovenian-education-system/

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Slovenia.

SLOVENIA

2018 PISA SCORE
503.7

2015 PISA SCORE
509.3

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Liechtenstein

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 00:51:24 GMT

Primary Education

Education in the enclave of Lichtenstein east of Switzerland follows a traditional model based on Catholic pedagogic principles, and is compulsory from age 6 to age 15. Following optional kindergarten, children enter primary school at age 6 where they remain for 5 years. There they receive a basic grounding in academic subjects before topping out with a grade 5 certificate.

Middle Education

There are 3 kinds of middle schools orientated to meet individual needs. These are realschule (four-year programs with practical applications), oberschule (four-years and equivalent to grammar schools) and gymnasiums which follow 3 year academic curricula. In the latter case a fourth year follows that may be completed in any one of these institutions. All 3 programs complete with a lower secondary school certificate.

Secondary Education

The path to university lies through gymnasiums where students aged between 15 and 18 attend for 4 more years. Here they may choose between 5 different programs according to their preferred specialization before sitting for their matura certificate. This entitles them to enroll at universities in Switzerland, Austria, and the University of Tubingen in Germany. Berufsmittelschule allow other, more practically-minded students to advance their career prospects in areas of business, design, engineering or information technologies. The berufsmaturiätsprüfung certificate awarded allows them to likewise study further in neighboring countries.

Vocational Education

After completing middle school, students not proceeding on to the upper level may embark on an optional 10 ^th grade that prepares them for their personal and vocational future. Within a core program they may add courses in traditional and modern languages, arts music & pedagogy, business & law, or maths & natural sciences. Their reward for success is a senior secondary leaving certificate.

Tertiary Education

There are no universities in Lichtenstein itself. It does however have an evening technical school, a music school and a children’s pedagogic-welfare day school. A set of contractual obligations and a state subsidy scheme actively encourage promising students to study for bachelor, master and doctorate degrees at Swiss and Austrian Universities, and at the University of Tubingen in Germany which is illustrated here.

In this way, the small, fiercely independent society ensures that academic opportunities remain available for all its young people.

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Liechtenstein.

LIECHTENSTEIN

2018 PISA SCORE
?

2015 PISA SCORE
?

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Belgium

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 00:48:16 GMT

Belgium is divided into three distinct language communities:

Dutch-speaking
French-speaking
German-speaking

Each community has their own regulations in regard to the education system and enrollment in schools.

While some aspects may differ, the compulsory school age throughout Belgium is between six and 18. Compulsory education is divided into primary (6-12 years) and secondary (12-18 years). Before the compulsory school age, there are also free pre-primary school facilities for children aged 2,5 years and over.

Within each region there are three main types of institutions:

Community schools – gemeenschapsonderwijs or GO! (in Dutch); réseau de la Communauté française (in French). State education that is neutral in terms of religion
Subsidized public schools – officieel gesubsidieerd onderwijs; réseau officiel subventionné, organized by municipalities
Subsidized private schools – vrij gesubsidieerd onderwijs; réseau libre subventionné, including schools with a religious affiliation
Fee-paying private schools: including international schools and Montessori schools

Enrolling at school:

All children living in Belgium must enroll within the first 60 days of their registration in the municipality. The documents you will need to enroll include:

proof of identity
a residence visa for Belgium (if applicable)
proof of vaccinations in Belgium
proof of address
any previous academic records

Those children without official residence documents also have the legal right to register in a school. Schools do not work based on a catchment area, so you are free to choose any location. However, this can mean that the closest school may be full. There are different enrollment systems for Dutch-language and French-language public schools, and depending when in the academic year your are relocating. For specific information it is useful to visit the corresponding Department for Education depending on whether you are moving to the Dutch-speaking community, the French-speaking Community, or the German-speaking community.

It may be, however, that you would prefer your child to follow a more global curriculum, and obtain internationally-recognized qualifications. International schools are popular amongst expats, especially if relocating with a company who can subsidize the fees. You can find more information on the range of international schools available in our guide to international schools in Belgium.

No matter what you choose, education standards are high in Belgium. Annual reports by economic organization OECD report rank Belgium’s education among the top 10 countries, with students performing above average in science, mathematics, and reading. Investment in education is also one of the highest among the 40 OECD countries.

Pre-school education in Belgium

Pre-school education is not compulsory but can be very useful for a number of reasons. Public funding means nurseries and pre-schools provide free childcare for working parents. Plus, while there are few formal lessons, classes actively prepare children for school on an educational and social level through play-focused learning. As a result, over 90% of children attend a pre-school in Belgium. Do be aware, however, that places in popular preschools can be limited. Nurseries are available for babies and toddlers up to 2,5 years and kindergartens (kleuteronderwijs in Dutch, enseignement maternelle in French) from then until school age. Often, a kindergarten has a relationship with a local primary school, making for an easy transition into formal education.

Primary Education in Belgium

Primary education – lager onderwijs in Dutch and enseignement primaire in French – is compulsory from ages six to 12. The local departments of education oversee the requirements and curriculum of each region.

Establishing the correct pace of education is important in Belgium. Children receive assessments at every level, from pre-primary to secondary schooling, to determine whether they are ready to move forward. As a part of this testing it is common for children to repeat a year, and doing so has no negative stigma attached.

On completing their primary education, children will graduate with a certificate of primary education, known as Certificat d’Etudes de Base (CEB) or Getuigschrift van Lager Onderwijs. This certificate is important when moving to secondary education.

Public primary schools in Belgium

Public primary education is free to all throughout the country. Possible costs include various learning materials – some of which can be subsidized – and excursions.

The curricula tend to be fairly traditional, with morning classes based around literacy and mathematics and a range of other subjects, including music and history, taught in the afternoon. Wednesday afternoons are often free.

There is also a strong emphasis on learning a foreign language. In the final years of primary education, learning Dutch or German for the French speaking community, and French for the Dutch-speaking community, usually becomes compulsory.

If you opt for a local school, children will need to have attended a certain number of half-days in a Dutch or French-language pre-school before they can enroll in primary school. Without this, children must undergo a basic language test to assess their proficiency.

Private primary schools in Belgium
There are also plenty of options for those parents and children leaning towards private, international or alternative styles of education.

The different types of private primary school available include:

Method and Montessori schools: offering an alternative education style with a focus on creative thinking and holistic child development.

International schools: families can choose between British, American European, or other international curriculums.

Religious schools: for example Catholic or Jewish schools. There are often subsidies for this.

Secondary Education in Belgium

The secondary school system in Belgium

Secondary education in Belgium – secundair onderwijs in Dutch; enseignement secondaire in French – is compulsory from ages 12 to 18. However, after age 16 students can opt to study part-time and undertake vocational or technical training.

Public Secondary Schools in Belgium

States schools are free to all pupils, although they may require a contribution for textbook costs.

The curriculum is broad to begin, but as students move into higher years, or cycles, they have more choice about the subjects they take. In the final cycle, between ages 16 and 18, it is also possible for students to study part time while undergoing vocational training.

When students begin to specialize, their courses of study focus on one of four areas:

General education: prepares students for the transition to higher education and focuses on training theory and general knowledge.

Technical education: similar to general education but focuses more on practice and technical teaching, preparing students for either a profession or further studies.

Vocational education: provides direct access to a profession at the end of the course of study and is heavily focused on practice. Students also receive one or more additional years, called fourth degree.

Art education: organized in exactly the same way as technical education, but the elective options are within arts and non-technical subjects. Students can go on to higher education in either a specialized institution, such as an art college, or to a university or college, depending on the subjects studied. Schools may specialize in a particular stream, or offer different sections for different streams.

Private Secondary Schools in Belgium

Private schools offer a range of different teaching styles and international schools provide the opportunity to obtain globally recognized qualifications.

International schools: offer education based on English, American, Nordic and European systems. The curriculum, teaching style and qualifications differ based on the system the school follows – at UK schools for example, secondary school students obtain GCSEs and A-Levels. Schools offering the International Baccalaureate (IB) are also a popular choice among international families

Subsidized private schools: including schools with a religious affiliation. These schools make up a large number of Belgian secondary education, particularly in Flanders.

Montessori Schools: only a few, such as the International Montessori School in Tervuren offer secondary education, although students here switch to the IB from age 11.

Steiner Schools: take a humanistic approach to education, blending intellectual, practical and artistic development. Secondary education focuses on critical reasoning

Other private schools: offer a range of alternative teaching methods. Sudbury School in Ghent, offers a U.S model where children are responsible for their own education, and French-speaking Le Labo specializes in sport education.

Graduating in Belgium

The Belgian school system’s approach to assessment may not win popularity awards with your kids. Testing is carried out throughout secondary education and is fairly rigorous. The Diploma van Secundair Onderwijs (in Dutch) or Certificat d’Enseignement secondaire supérieur général, technique ou artistique (CESS) (in French) is awarded on completion of secondary education. These certificates provide access to higher education. It is important to note, however, that with vocational training, education must be continued a further year to obtain the certificate. It is therefore necessary to choose carefully between the specializations when thinking about higher education.

International and alternative schools offer different qualifications for graduating students, including A-levels, for British schools, and the International Baccalaureate in Belgium.

The IB curriculum is recognized internationally and by higher education institutes. It is taught at a number of primary and secondary schools in Belgium. Use Expatica’s guide on the IB in Belgium to weigh up the advantages of an IB education, and browse the list of schools which offer the curriculum.

Support for children with special educational needs (SEN) in Belgium

As with other elements of education, support for children with SEN is determined by the department of education in each community. The national approach to special needs education in Belgium is one of inclusion and equality, meaning children are integrated into mainstream schools where possible. Many schools have permanent members of staff who specialize in special needs education.

Where integration in mainstream schooling is not possible, a variety of specialist schools are available from pre-school age until 21 years. Some cater, for example, to those with a physical disability, and others to students with behavioral difficulties. Enrollment in these schools, available throughout the year, requires an assessment to determine the most appropriate school for your child. The assessment will be carried out by the Centre psycho-medico-social, PMS (French) in Liège, or the Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding, VCLB (Dutch). Alternatively, assessment tests can be carried out in English at the Children’s Department of the Community Help Centre, CHS.

Details of dedicated SEN schools in a particular area can be found at the town halls (Stadhuis/Maison communale), and the individual Ministries of Education publish lists of special schools on their websites.

Changing schools in Belgium

Registering for a place in a Belgian school can be difficult, so it can be challenging to change schools during the school year. Many schools, both public and private, have waiting lists. Some students go through the selection process up to two years before, to ensure a place at their school of choice.

Registration also takes place at certain times of the year, usually December or January for public schools. This may affect the ease of changing schools mid year. International and private schools, however, may have different admissions processes throughout the year. Check with the individual school for their policy.

Home schooling in Belgium

Due to the differences in curriculum or the price of international schools, some expat parents opt to homeschool their child. Home schooling is constitutionally permitted in Belgium, but the curricula taught much meet certain requirements, depending on the community you reside in, and students must pass yearly assessments.

The number of children being educated at home, or by private tutors in Belgium is rising. According to a study by Agodi, in Flanders, the number of home schooled students of secondary school age rose from around 100 to over 1000 between the years 2000 and 2014.

However, there are stringent guidelines in place, and failing to meet them means that parents may face sanctions. If you decide to educate your child at home, you must notify the language-specific department of education. Parents must also sign a document adhering to the UN’s convention on children’s rights, a requirement that has been met with some controversy in the past.

Educational support for expat students in Belgium

With such a variety of languages spoken, language learning is a core part of Belgian public education, and funding is provided to help children who do not speak the main teaching language. Support varies from school to school, so it’s a good idea to ask what support they offer for learning the language. Some schools offer language immersion programs and many run out-of-hours clubs that offer homework help and educational support.

There are also plenty of language courses available to provide extra support for your child. This guide on language courses for kids in Belgium gives you more information on a range of private language support available.

Source: https://www.expatica.com/be/education/children-education/education-in-belgium-100088/

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Belgium.

BELGIUM

2018 PISA SCORE
500

2015 PISA SCORE
502.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Switzerland

Sun, 20 Jun 2021 00:45:03 GMT

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Switzerland.

SWITZERLAND

2018 PISA SCORE
498

2015 PISA SCORE
506.3

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Estonia

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 23:00:58 GMT

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Estonia.

ESTONIA

2018 PISA SCORE
525.3

2015 PISA SCORE
524.3

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

New Zealand

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:59:55 GMT

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND

2018 PISA SCORE
502.7

2015 PISA SCORE
505.3

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Netherlands

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:57:34 GMT

The Netherlands is committed to choice in education and you will find a huge range of options to consider when enrolling your child in school.

Overall, the education system in the Netherlands works very well, but it is very different from most other countries. Furthermore, some of the policies vary per city. That said, schools following particular religious or pedagogic principles have had equal state funding to public schools since 1917.

Most children start primary school (called basisschool in Dutch) the day after their 4th birthday; whenever that is throughout the year. From their 5th birthday, all children are obliged to go to school (leerplicht).

Primary school has eight grades, group 1 through group 8 (age 12). Afterwards, students transfer to a secondary school. They are obliged to go to school until the end of the school year in which they have turned 16; provided they have obtained a diploma (startkwalificatie). If not, they should continue studying until age 18, either full-time or part-time.

School fees and contributions

Although the education at most Dutch schools is free, they do ask for a small voluntarily parent contribution (ouderbijdrage) with which they pay for extra things like school trips, celebrations (Sinterklaas / Christmas), a dedicated music teacher, or a pupil-run vegetable garden. Some schools base the rate of the contribution on the household income of the parents.

The Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science (OCW) is the Dutch ministry responsible for education, culture, science, research, gender equality, and communications. Apart from a handful of private, fee-paying schools, all schools are funded by this ministry. The ministry sets quality standards, core objectives, attainment targets, and social objectives all schools need to adhere to. However, individual schools fill in the details of the curriculum and budget allocation.

The Dutch school attendance law (leerplichtwet) is very strict. Children are only allowed to miss school because of very specific reasons; for example, an important family celebration or emergency, or if you can prove that your job doesn’t allow you to take time off during the school holidays.

School holidays in the Netherlands

School holidays in the Netherlands , for primary and secondary schools, are set nationally with staggered start/finish times across three regions in order to spread out most of the holiday traffic. The summer holiday lasts for six weeks. During the school year, there is at least one week of holiday after each period of about six weeks; this is so both pupils and teachers can recharge their batteries. For the exact dates, click here . While the school terms of private and international schools can be different, the school year lasts in total a minimum of 40 weeks.

The quality of the Dutch education system

The Dutch rank highly in many fields of education. In fact, the World Economic Forum has ranked the Netherlands as the third-most educated country in the world. Furthermore, in the renowned global Pisa/OECD rankings for 15-year-olds, the Netherlands is listed as one of the highest in performance. A third of Dutch 25-64 year olds hold a university degree , which is significantly higher than the OECD average of 24%.

The Netherlands also scores among the world’s top countries for equity in education opportunities, and all 13 state-funded Dutch universities typically score well in The Times Higher Education World University Rankings.

The Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science is currently working together with teachers, school principals, and educational specialists on a new national curriculum. This is designed to be more future-proof and connect even better to the future learning goals of the current students.

Pre-school education in the Netherlands

Before children reach primary school age, they could go to daycare or preschool, or a combination of the two. Daycare is meant for children from about 10 weeks up to 4 years old. Most daycares only offer full-day contracts for 1 to 5 fixed days per week. In most cities, preschool (voorschool) starts at age 2, and is offered for an average of 15 hours per week, spread out over three days.

Usually preschool is more structured than daycare and they prepare the preschool children for primary school in a playful way, according to a designated program. The focus is on Dutch language acquisition, social skills, and motor skills. Most preschools are connected to a primary school, but run by a different organization. In most cases, your child won’t get automatic access to the connected primary school.

If both parents work (or a single parent works in a single parent family), they should be entitled to a tax rebate ( kinderopvangtoeslag ) for the daycare costs through the Belastingdienst. This amount is not only dependent on the income of both parents, but also on how many hours they use daycare.

Also in the case of preschool, working parents can apply for the tax rebate. If only one or neither of the parents works, they will get a subsidy from the municipality (gemeente) for the preschool costs.

Primary education in the Netherlands

In the Netherlands, there is a distinction between openbare and bijzondere schools. The openbare schools are both funded and run by an independent foundation that was originally set up by the government. They are always non-religious. About two-thirds of the population attend bijzondere (special) schools, which have their own board and often follow particular religious or pedagogic principles. Usually, the religious schools are fairly moderate in terms of religion and are open to non-religious children, and those who have a different religion. However, this varies per school.

Most primary schools combine groups 1 and 2 (ages four and five) in the same class, the kleuterklas, which is comparable to kindergarten. Here they focus on learning through play, social skills, gross and fine motor skills, structure, independence, and gradual preparation for reading and writing. Formal reading and writing start in group 3, at age six.

The national average number of students in a government-funded school class is 23 to 24. In many bigger cities, you will find more children per class; most schools have a maximum of 28 to 30. One of the main reasons parents choose one of the few private schools are the smaller classes. From group 3 to group 8, most schools have one age group per class. Exceptions are the Montessori and Jenaplan schools, where they combine three age groups.

Different education philosophies

Choice of educational philosophy is very important for many parents in the Netherlands. It is important to understand the differences between the philosophies to be able to make the best choice for your child.

For example, at Montessori schools, children are taught to become independent, and they often work at their own pace. In Dalton schools, they learn to make their own realistic plans and schedules, and work in groups on projects. In Jenaplan schools, the community plays an important role, and Waldorf (vrije) schools have a strong focus on nature and mainly teach through stories, poems, recitals, and plays.

School opening hours

Schools may decide their own hours. Usually, school starts between 8:30 and 8:45, and ends between 15:00 and 15:15. There is a lunch break for about 45 minutes to 1 hour, during which the children can either go home or have lunch at school (overblijven/TSO). For the children who stay at school, an additional fee (overblijfgeld) has to be paid. They have to bring their own lunch from home. Weather permitting, they play outside before or after lunch. The teachers also have a lunch break and the school asks volunteers, after-school care teachers, or parents to supervise the children.

Some schools have a continuous schedule (continurooster), where all pupils have lunch at school in the classroom with their teacher . Their lunch break is shorter and the school ends earlier than the schools that have overblijven.

On Wednesdays, most schools close at around 12.30pm for the day. Wednesday afternoons are usually filled by playdates, birthday parties, sports clubs, and music lessons. Primary schools are required to offer after-school care to their pupils. Usually, they contract an external organization (BSO). The BSO teachers will come and pick up the children from school, and then parents/ guardians can pick them up at the BSO location before closing time. During school holidays and other days that the school is closed, the BSO is open all day. Parents have to arrange and pay for the BSO separately, for which they may get a tax rebate (Kinderopvangtoeslag).

Bilingual schools in the Netherlands

By law, Dutch schools have to start teaching English as a subject by group 7 (about age 10) at the latest. More and more schools have decided to start earlier, sometimes from group 1. Such schools are VVTO schools, which refers to Early Foreign Language Education.

Seventeen schools in the Netherlands are official bilingual pilot schools. They may teach up to 50% of the time in English. The pilot is due to finish in 2023, and if the results are positive, there are likely to be more bilingual schools afterwards.

It is important to note that the bilingual schools are Dutch schools, which offer English on top of the Dutch curriculum. All the tests are still in Dutch. Some bilingual schools require at least one of the parents to be fluent in Dutch.

Student testing and monitoring

Most Dutch primary schools don’t give much homework, especially not in the early years. Twice per year, from group 2 or 3, the pupils take a test to measure their progress. They call this the pupil monitor system (leerlingvolg-systeem, LVS). With these tests, schools can spot any learning difficulties like dyslexia at an early stage. If they detect something, the child might need some additional support.

The tests are also a way to measure the quality of teaching. The pupils can’t pass or fail these tests and there are no direct consequences based on the outcome of the tests alone. The children don’t need to prepare for the tests, and younger ones (especially) are not aware that they are taking a test. Often the teachers only inform the parents of the results, and not the pupils. There is usually no competition between the children based on the test outcomes. Some schools take these tests more seriously than others, so it is always good to inquire in advance.

Student reports and grades

Most schools hand out a school report twice a year with grades that range from ‘very good’ to ‘insufficient’, and invite parents to discuss their children’s results in a 10-minute meeting. It is fairly common for a child to repeat or skip a year, and people do not usually frown upon this.

In group 8, the last year of primary school, the pupils take the central end test for primary education (Centrale Eindtoets Basisonderwijs). This is an aptitude test that measures what the pupils have learned in the past eight years. The pupils answer questions which test their Dutch language and comprehension skills, mathematics, study skills, and world orientation. This is a combination of history, geography, biology, and world religions. The subject of world orientation is optional for schools.

Previously a foundation called Cito designed these tests. Since school year 2014-15, the Ministry of Education has officially approved a few other tests besides the Cito test (e.g, Route 8 or IEP). All primary school students must take part in the end test.

Before the end test takes place, the group 8 teacher assesses what level of secondary education would best fit each pupil. They base their recommendation on various factors including the pupil’s test scores from group 6, their intelligence, attitude towards learning, eagerness to learn, interests, and motivation. Based on the outcome of this end test and the recommendation of the teacher, the pupils get a school recommendation (schooladvies) for the appropriate level of secondary education.

If the test results are higher than the teacher’s recommendation, the secondary school advice may be upgraded. If the test results are lower, then the teacher recommends the way forward.

Secondary education in the Netherlands

There are basically three levels of high school education, which go by the acronyms of VMBO, HAVO, and VWO. Here is a summary of them all:

VMBO – is preparatory secondary vocational education, which usually takes four years, and is followed by MBO;
HAVO – senior general secondary education, takes five years, and is followed by HBO (Hogeschool/University of Applied Sciences);
VWO – pre-university education takes six years, and students can continue to university (WO).

Subject choices

Many secondary schools offer a mixed-level bridge class in the first year (sometimes for the first two years). After obtaining a diploma from one level, you may proceed to the next level. This route usually takes some extra time. Some secondary schools are running a pilot where you can take different subjects at different levels. It looks like the system will become a bit more flexible in the future.

At VMBO schools, students can choose between more theoretical or more practical subjects. They also choose a sector in which to specialize: Economics (e.g., administration, commercial services, fashion), Agriculture (e.g., agriculture, environment, and food technology), Technical (e.g., construction, graphics, automotive, electrical), or Care and Welfare (e.g., care, sports, services, safety).

Trade and MBO diplomas

After the theoretical level of VMBO, students may either go to the fourth year of HAVO, or to the MBO, where they can obtain a trade diploma. With a theoretical MBO diploma, you may move onto HBO, which is a university of applied sciences.

About halfway through their HAVO or VWO course, students have to choose a profile in which they will eventually graduate. The options are: nature and health, nature and technology, culture and society, or economics and society. With your HAVO diploma, you may go to VWO or HBO.

VWO is in general more analytical and research-oriented than HAVO, and consists of two branches: Atheneum and Gymnasium. Gymnasium offers Latin, Ancient Greek, and Classical studies, while Atheneum does not. Both give equal access to (research-oriented) university (WO).

Like primary schools, some secondary schools are religious, or based on an educational philosophy. Whatever type of primary school your child has attended, they can go to any type of secondary school; you don’t need to stick with the same philosophy if you don’t want to.

Schools in the Netherlands

Besides Dutch schools, there are also a good amount of international schools to choose from.

International schools

The Netherlands is one of the few countries in the world in which the government subsidizes international education. The subsidized international schools are intended for children who live temporarily (2 to 3 years) in the country because of their parents’ jobs; however, they won’t have to leave if you end up staying longer. The fees are around 4,500 to 5,500 euros per year, per child, and many schools have a waiting list.

The private international schools generally start at 15,000 euros per year. These schools usually have shorter waiting lists and tend to offer more facilities, and after-school activities. Most of the international schools follow the thematic International Primary Curriculum (IPC) or the inquiry-based IB (International Baccalaureate) curriculum.

The government of the country the international school is related to may subsidize it, for example, the French, German, and Japanese schools. The European Union fund the European schools, and these are free for the children of parents who work for a European agency or institute. Other children pay between 5,000 and 7,000 euros per year, however in case of limited availability, they have to give priority to the children from the ‘target group’.

Find a full list of secondary international schools in the Netherlands.

Special needs schools

Under the ‘Inclusive Education’ (Passend Onderwijs) Act, as many children who require additional support as possible should be able to go to the regular school in their neighborhood. The school where you apply is responsible for providing a suitable learning place for your child. If needed, they can buy in the support of external, specialized SEN teachers. However, these are usually only available for a few hours per week. The experience and expertise schools have with children with special needs varies greatly.

If the support required turns out to be too intensive or specialized, children might be referred to a dedicated special needs school. Sometimes the pupils of the special needs school stay there for the whole primary school period, followed by a special needs secondary school; while other pupils transfer to a regular school after a few years of intensive support.

Higher education in the Netherlands

Since most employers ask for qualified employees, students are highly encouraged to obtain a diploma. After the above-mentioned types of secondary school, students can continue with many different types of higher education.

After VMBO, students may continue with MBO, to obtain a diploma with which they could become, for example, an assistant, childminder, secretary, security officer, office employee, hairdresser, or nurse.

The education that follows after HAVO is called HBO, which is University of Applied Sciences, and usually takes four years. At the HBO, students can obtain a bachelor’s degree. Students with an MBO diploma also have access to the HBO.

A lot of people working in business and trade are HBO graduates, and also for example, primary school teachers, architects, art directors, journalists, translators, midwifes, artists, pilots, and nurses with a management position.

Bachelor and masters programs

Some HBO institutes also offer a master’s program, for which you often need to have some relevant work experience. You can also do your bachelor’s at HBO, followed by a master’s at university. With your certificate of your first year of HBO (propedeuse), you may also continue your education at university.

Most university studies take four years too, with some years added for possible specializations. University (WO) graduates could, among other professions, become lawyers, psychologists, doctors, surgeons, researchers, notaries, professors, engineers, or scientists.

Higher education is state-funded and students pay a bit over 2,000 euros per year for university and HBO, of which first-year students pay half. One of the measurements the government has taken to diminish the national teacher shortage is that students who train to become a teacher pay half of the study fees during the first two years of study. Students might also qualify for a study grant, based on their performances and parents’ income.

More and more university HBO and MBO studies are available in English . From age 21 you can do a colloquium doctum with a university. This is an exam for people who don’t have the right (VWO or HBO) diploma to go to university, however can prove they are at the right academic level. Many universities also offer part-time study programs that students can combine with their job, or other commitments. Read our guide to Dutch universities for more information.

Examinations in the Netherlands

As previously mentioned, all primary schools have to take the end test of primary school, however the schools may decide which of the government-approved tests they choose.

All students of the same school take the same type of test, while some adaptations have been made for children with special needs. Furthermore, all secondary schools take the same national exams in their last year, regardless of their educational approach or philosophy.

With the right diploma for secondary school, you may move up to higher education. A few studies are oversubscribed and require applicants to take part in an assessment or build a portfolio before they can enter. However, most university studies are non-selective and don’t involve a standard entry test.

Education costs and funding

Municipalities sponsor parents who cannot afford the voluntary parent contribution at the government-funded schools. They can also get a contribution towards after-school activities and other costs related to raising children. Some companies pay for the international education of the children of their employees, and sometimes these fees are tax-deductible. It is a good idea to ask your HR department if this is the case.

Educational support for expat students

Especially in the bigger cities, there are a lot of non-Dutch children who attend Dutch schools; particularly if their parents plan to stay in the Netherlands for a longer time. Children aged six or older who don’t speak Dutch yet are usually referred to a newcomer or Dutch immersion class first. Here they will learn the language in small classes with specialized teachers. The newcomer class takes on average one year. The pupils are usually promoted to the next grade after that.

There are a few schools that have an internal newcomer class, and a couple of separate schools for newcomers. In some cities, the newcomer classes start at age 4. How much additional support a (regular) school can offer with the Dutch language varies per school.

Support for children with special educational needs (SEN)

If the support your child requires turns out to be too specialized or intensive, the regular school may refer them to a dedicated special needs school. You will also need a toelaatbaarheidsverklaring (tlv) – literally translated as ‘permissibility declaration’.

There are three main types of special needs education: Speciaal basisonderwijs (SBO), and speciaal onderwijs at both primary (SO) and secondary (VSO) levels.

At these schools, the class sizes are smaller than at regular schools, and the children receive more tailor-made and specialized support and therapies focused on their specific needs.

At SBO schools, the pupils follow the same program and have the same core objectives as regular primary schools. Besides more personal attention and tailor-made support in a smaller setting, they also get more time to complete primary school (until age 14, instead of age 12).

Within the special needs schools (speciaal onderwijs), there are four cluster schools based on the type of special needs. The teachers teach at different levels in the class, and most children follow the regular curriculum.

Speciaal onderwijs schools

The speciaal onderwijs schools are divided into the following clusters:

1 – schools for children who are visually impaired or blind;
2 – is for children who have serious communication problems (deafness, speech disorder, etc);
3 – schools welcome children who have cognitive or physical disabilities, or a chronic illness that makes going to school difficult;
4 – schools are for children with psychiatric or serious behavioral issues (autism, ADHD, PDD-NOS, ODD, CD, etc).

After a special needs primary school, a child can go to either a regular secondary school (with extra support, if needed), or a special needs school at secondary level (VSO). A special needs school at secondary level needs to make an educational plan with the child and guide them towards a suitable career. If a pupil makes enough progress at the special needs school, they may transfer to a regular (primary or secondary) school.

A specialized educational consultant (onderwijsconsulent) can assist your family in this process. An onderwijsconsulent is an independent educational specialist who has a lot of experience with SEN children. Parents don’t need to pay for the help of this consultant.

Homeschooling in the Netherlands

Homeschooling is generally not allowed in the Netherlands. However, some exceptions are made for families who cannot find a school in their vicinity which matches with their religion or life convictions. You should research the possibilities of homeschooling before you apply for any type of school. Once your child is in the system, it is very hard to get out again.

Source: https://www.expatica.com/nl/education/children-education/dutch-education-system-100816/

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Netherlands.

NETHERLANDS

2018 PISA SCORE
502.3

2015 PISA SCORE
508

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Poland

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:55:25 GMT

Overview of the education system (EAG 2020)

On average, 52% of all upper secondary students enroll in VET programmes in Poland, a higher proportion than the OECD average of 42%.

In 2019, 43% of 25-34 year-olds had a tertiary degree in Poland compared to 45% on average across OECD countries.

In Poland, in 2018, 25-64 year-olds with a tertiary degree with income from full-time, full-year employment earned 55% more than full-time, full-year workers with upper secondary education compared to 54% on average across OECD countries.

In 2017, Poland invested a total of USD 8 144 per student on primary to tertiary institutions compared to USD 11 231 on average across OECD countries. This represents 4.3% of GDP, compared to 4.9% on average across OECD countries.

In 2018, 85% of 3-5 year-olds were enrolled in early childhood education and care programmes and primary education in Poland, compared to 88% on average across OECD countries.

In just three decades since the fall of communism, Poland has transformed from a centrally planned economy into a highly diverse, free market economy. As part of this change, Poland instituted a series of major school reforms aimed at expanding access to quality education for its students. In the early 1990s, more than 60 percent of adults living in rural areas had only a primary school education. Now, the share of adults with less than an upper secondary education has dropped below 8 percent. Similarly, in 2000, Poland scored below the OECD average in all three PISA subjects. By 2012, Poland had joined the top performers in science and reading. In comparison to other jurisdictions, the country’s performance continued to rise on the 2015 and 2018 PISAs, situating Poland among the top performers on the latest PISA in all three subjects. Equity is still a concern in Poland, as socioeconomic status predicts test performance at about the OECD average, and there have not been significant improvements in this measure over the past two rounds of PISA.

After the end of World War II, Poland remained a Soviet satellite state with a centralized education and training system focused on preparing workers for long-term, guaranteed employment. With the fall of the communist government in 1989, Poland began transitioning to a parliamentary democracy with a western economy. At the time, the country offered an eight-year basic school and three types of secondary schools: a four-year academic school, a five-year technical school, or a three-year basic vocational school. Reforms in 1999 changed this structure. Poland made primary school six years and created a universal three-year lower secondary school, providing students with a longer common academic foundational experience before choosing an academic or vocational secondary program. Poland also opened a path from secondary vocational school to university. In addition to these structural changes, Poland revised its curriculum to make it less prescriptive and give teachers more flexibility to adapt it to their students’ needs and introduced national exams at the end of primary and lower secondary school to measure student progress on the curriculum.

Poland implemented a second round of reforms in 2009 that pushed back the start of compulsory schooling to age 6. This change coincided with an effort to increase participation in early childhood education, particularly in rural areas. Poland committed to making early childhood education available to all 3- to 5-year-olds, and as of 2018 enrolled close to 90 percent of four- and five-year-olds. There is now a national core curriculum for preschool education.

A shift in Poland’s political leadership in 2015 brought substantial changes to education reform. The socially conservative Law and Justice party (PiS) abolished the three-year lower secondary school and re-introduced an eight-year basic school for all students. It also created a common first year of general education for the academic and technical secondary schools and revamped the programs offered in the basic vocational schools. The updated vocational options are intended to tie training more directly to employer needs and provide broader access to higher education overall. This new structure will be fully implemented in 2023-24.

In general, Poles have been supportive of the secondary vocational reforms. However, parents, teachers, and students pushed back on the closing of lower secondary schools, which struck many as unnecessary and overly abrupt. Polish teachers have also experienced frustration over pay. Their salaries are the lowest in the European Union, and the PiS has been reluctant to agree to significant pay raises. In April 2019, Polish teachers went on a 20-day strike, the longest national walkout in postwar Poland. Negotiations failed, and teachers returned to work.

Governance Structure

Until recently, Poland had two separate education ministries. The Ministry of National Education was responsible for preschool, primary, and secondary school education, including vocational education. The Ministry of Science and Higher Education was responsible for post-secondary education. In 2021, Poland consolidated the ministries into a single Ministry of Education and Science in an effort to improve efficiency and coordination.

The Ministry sets national regulations for the minimum hours students must be in school; designs the national curricula and exams; establishes criteria for textbooks; and sets guidelines and performance ratings for school inspections. It also sets wage levels for teachers.

In Poland, there are 16 provinces (or regions), almost 400 counties and over 2,400 municipalities (or local governments). Most major cities are both a county and a municipality. Each tier of government has different areas of responsibility:

The regional education authority supervises all schools in the region including postsecondary institutions, including conducting school inspections, and implements national education policies.
Counties are responsible for the administration of secondary schools, including vocational schools, and schools for children with special needs.
Municipalities establish and manage preschools and primary schools. They oversee school facilities, decide when to open and close schools, set school budgets, hire and dismiss principals, and determine school staffing.

Schools develop their own curricula based on the national core curriculum, hire and fire their own teachers, and select their own textbooks from a list approved by the Minister of National Education. Schools also establish their own teaching councils, which are made up of at least three teachers, as well as members of the school administration, including principals. Councils are responsible for the approval of curricular plans and decisions related to grading and promotion of students. They also provide guidance on the organization of school activities.

Planning and Goals

Poland does not have a regular process for setting national education goals. However, when the current government adopted the Responsible Development Strategy in 2017 (for the period up to 2020, with a view to 2030) it identified education as a key element of Poland’s “inclusive social and economic development.” The document, prepared after consultation with a wide range of stakeholders and the public, does not articulate specific educational goals, but in proposing solutions to the skills gap in the marketplace notes that “emphasis must be put on creativity, innovative thinking and the use of new technologies as well as adjusting vocational education to the requirements put forward by the modern economy.”

Education Finance

Education funding includes state budget subsidies that are both general and targeted (for school textbooks and learning resources, for example); local government resources; other public funds; and European Union funds. The core state educational grant is awarded to each municipality based on a complex formula that factors in the general cost of schooling by level (primary, secondary), estimated teacher salaries, materials and other expenses, and a per-student cost. The per-student portion is weighted to adjust for the higher costs of serving students with special needs, new immigrant or those in rural areas. While the national government supplies the majority of school funding, municipalities can use revenue from taxes and local fees as a supplement. The local government or region has full autonomy in determining a budget for each school.

While the vast majority of Polish primary and secondary schools are public, private schools, including religious schools, also receive public funding from local government budgets.

As part of the 2017 reforms, the government stopped funding vocational schools on a per student model. Instead, funding depends on which occupational programs a school offers, with more expensive programs funded at a higher level. The 2017 law also increased state subsidies to vocational schools and participating employers training students in high-demand fields such as IT. The subsidies are paid to county governments, which direct them to the appropriate schools.

Accountability

School Accountability

Poland implemented an inspection system for preschools, primary schools, and secondary schools in 2009. The purpose of the system was twofold: to identify underperforming schools, and to raise the visibility of strong performers, thereby highlighting good practice. The legislation does not provide specifics on how and when inspections should occur, leaving each Regional Education Authority (REA) to design its own schedule. The REA appoints an inspection panel of expert educators who are trained in the inspection process and conduct site visits to meet with school staff and key stakeholders and to observe classes. At the end of each visit, the team presents findings to the school’s teaching council and submits a report to the REA. When a school is found to be underperforming, the head of the REA instructs the principal to develop a plan for improvement. Principals who fail to improve their schools may lose their jobs—or, in the case of a non-public school, the school may lose its permit and be closed down—although it is unclear how often this happens. Inspections cover a range of topics including implementation of the curriculum, development of student behaviors and attitudes, partnerships with parents, and organization of work as well as examination results. School self-evaluation based on school plans are part of the process.

Reports on individual schools based on these inspections are posted on a national public website. Student results on national examinations are included in these reports, including value-added scores to show student progress over time at the school. Student results for individual teacher level are not available to the public but are available to principals.

Teacher Accountability

Until 2017-18, Poland distinguished between two types of teacher evaluation: performance assessment (an evaluation of teaching ability) and assessment of professional achievements (a measure of how much professional development a teacher has undertaken for the purpose of promotion). Since then, Poland combined these into a new form of teacher performance appraisal. This appraisal is now required

at the end of the probation period leading to promotion to the next salary stage (contract, appointed, or chartered teacher positions); and
every three years for general feedback from the school principal.

Teachers are rated as either outstanding, very good, good, or negative. They must receive at least a “good” rating in order to be promoted. Going forward, chartered teachers who receive an outstanding performance appraisal will receive a salary “top-up allowance.”

Foundation of Supports

Supports for Young Children and Their Families

Poland has had paid maternity leave since 1981. In 2003, it introduced a more generous family support system public childcare options for young children and longer work leaves, including paternity leave. In 2016, amendments to the Polish Labor Code doubled the amount of time parents can take off from work following the birth of a child: up to 14 weeks of maternity leave and up to two weeks of paternity leave. The amendments also introduced the concept of paid parental leave, available to either parent for up to 32 weeks. Parents can use the leave until the end of the calendar year in which the child turns 6 and may use it in a lump, divide it into parts, or combine it with part-time work.

In addition, the central government provides each family with a monthly child-raising allowance until the child turns 18. Poland’s National Health Fund (NFZ) provides publicly funded health insurance coverage for almost all Polish citizens through their employers. Uninsured pregnant women and children also receive coverage through the NFZ. Coverage for pregnant women continues through childbirth and the postpartum period.

Poland has long faced a shortage of childcare slots. In the early 1990s, Poland decentralized responsibility for childcare provision to municipalities, and many dealt with budget shortfalls by closing childcare centers. To address this, the central government began allocating grants to municipalities to cover the cost of childcare for children under age 3, principally through program Maluch Plus. That same year, the Act on Care for Children Under the Age of Three mandated an increase in the number of childcare slots as well as subsidies for both public and private care to accommodate working parents.

In recent decades Poland has also focused on developing and improving access to childcare for children with disabilities and special care needs. In 2018, the government tripled its investment in Maluch Plus to address a lingering shortage of places in childcare centers, but this issue remains a challenge for Poland. Even if a municipality can afford to build a new public childcare facility, it may be reluctant to make a commitment to the ongoing costs of operating and subsidizing the center as many parents cannot afford to pay tuition.

Supports for School Aged Children

While public education is free in Poland, the government provides income-tested supplemental family allowances to defray expenses at the beginning of the school year, for students traveling to school, and for households with more than three children.

All children up to age 18 are entitled to health insurance coverage through Poland’s National Health Fund (NFZ), which provides free access to a range of health care services, including primary and hospital care. The 2019 Act on Healthcare for Pupils increases access to health care through primary and secondary schools. The Act requires all schools to provide school-based preventive health care, including dental care, either at school or through a community provider. Funding is set aside within the NFZ.

Poland has a nationwide network of public counseling and guidance centers that offer mental health services as well as education and career counseling to supplement what is available in schools. These centers are available to all students and families across the country, at no cost.

Since 2016, schools can, but are not required to, organize preparatory classes for Polish language learners. The classes, which are only open to immigrants, offer the same curriculum as standard schools and must limit direct Polish language instruction to 3 hours per week. This makes it difficult for students to become fluent quickly. As the classes group foreign students of different ages and abilities together, there is also concern over teacher preparedness to serve such diverse students.

Learning System

Preschool

Pre-primary education was not well-developed in Poland before the 1990s, when less than half of all 3- to 6-year-olds were enrolled in any type of preschool. In 2004, Poland made publicly funded kindergarten compulsory at age 6, to prepare children for primary school at age 7. In 2011, Poland shifted the compulsory ages to kindergarten at age 5 and primary school at age 6 but reversed the shift soon after. In 2009, Poland began requiring municipalities to guarantee preschool places for children five and older, and, starting in 2017, for children three and older. While the state provides funding for preschool, municipalities are also expected to contribute their own resources. This has proved difficult for some small municipalities, and sufficient places are not, in practice, available across the country. In 2017, 92 percent of children age 5, 85 percent of children age 4, and 67 percent children age 3 attended preschool. The majority of children attend public preschools, but there are non-public options as well.

Preschool in Poland is designed to prepare children for primary school. Poland developed a national core curriculum for preschool education in 2012 and updated it in 2017. The curriculum defines expected outcomes for children in terms of physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. Play is the main form of activity. Children also begin learning a foreign language in preschool. Before students transition to primary school, teachers prepare reports on each child’s readiness in areas like motor skills, social activity, and independence. The assessments help teachers and parents identify individual children’s learning needs. Children who need additional diagnostic assessment or support can receive these services in one of Poland’s counseling and guidance centers.

Primary and Secondary Education

System Structure

In 2017, Poland initiated major reforms to the primary and secondary education system, to be fully implemented by 2023-24. The new system:

Shifts the starting age for compulsory school from age 5 to age 6;
Establishes an 8-year primary school and phases out the 3-year lower secondary school put in place in 1999;
Extends both general and technical secondary school programs by a year; and
Replaces the basic vocational school program with a two-stage vocational program:
“Stage 1” is a three-year program that leads to vocational qualifications.
“Stage 2” is a two-year follow-on program that allows students to secure additional vocational qualifications and prepare for the matura university admission exam.

The 2017 reforms also established the Vocational Education Development Fund to direct more funds to vocational training for in-demand occupations.

While the public has shown broad support for the upper secondary and vocational school reforms, many people valued the lower secondary schools and felt they were not given a chance to be fully implemented. In addition, there were concerns that they were abolished too abruptly, leaving students and teachers scrambling to find places in new schools.

Standards and Curriculum

After Poland broke from Communist rule in 1989, the country initiated a series of national conversations about how to modernize the education system. A decade later, these talks culminated in the introduction of a new national curriculum and examinations. The curriculum specified the goals of teaching and learning and the knowledge, skills and competences students should acquire in each grade. It also specified the number of weekly teaching hours by grade and subject.

Poland has updated its national curriculum twice since 1999. In 2009, it enacted reforms designed to strengthen students’ problem-solving and analytic skills following weak results in those areas on the 2006 PISA. In 2017, Poland changed the curriculum to better align with the new structure for primary and secondary school. It also made changes to the history curriculum.

As of 2017, students in primary school study Polish language; modern foreign language; music and art; history; civic education; natural sciences; geography; biology; chemistry; physics; mathematics; computer science; technology; physical education; and safety education. Students receive counseling throughout primary school around their secondary school options.

Students in general upper secondary school take a similar set of courses: Polish language; two modern foreign languages; culture studies; history; civic education; introduction to entrepreneurship; geography; biology; chemistry; physics; mathematics; information technology; physical education; safety education; and electives.

Students in vocational upper secondary programs study the same core academic subjects taught in general upper secondary school. (More detail is provided in the CTE section.)

Within the framework of the national core curriculum, teachers are free to develop their own lessons, individually or in collaboration with their peers, or choose a commercial curriculum and adapt it as necessary. There is no required school-level curriculum. Teachers are expected to submit their curricular plans for approval by the school principal in consultation with the school’s teaching council.

Teachers may choose textbooks from a list approved by the Minister of National Education or use other resources instead of textbooks if they prefer.

Assessment and Qualifications

Through 2016, students took a national exam at the end of their six years of primary school. The exam, set by the Central Examination Board and administered and assessed by the Regional Examination Boards, was designed to provide teachers and parents with information about student achievements. The results did not affect completion or grades for primary school but could be considered for admission to secondary school. The exam was abolished as part of the 2017 school system reform.

The new eight-year primary school prepares students for a new exam at the end of eighth-grade. Until 2020-21, the exam included Polish language, mathematics and a modern foreign language. Starting in 2021-22, students will pick an additional subject from biology, chemistry, physics, geography and history. The examination results are one criterion among several used to determine students’ secondary school options.

The 2005 School Education Act first introduced the national matura exam as the final secondary school graduation exam and the basis for entry into higher education for students in both general and vocational upper secondary schools. Higher education institutions use matura exam results for admissions and do not have separate entrance examinations.

The matura exam uses written and oral components to test both compulsory and optional subjects. The written exam covers compulsory subjects at a basic level: Polish language, mathematics, modern foreign language, and a national minority language for students who study in that language. Additionally, students choose one to five additional subjects on which to be tested at an “extended” or more advanced level: biology, chemistry, philosophy, physics, geography, history, history of music, history of art, computer science, Latin and ancient culture, minority and regional languages, modern foreign language, Polish language, mathematics, and civic education. The oral exam, assessed by the school’s teachers, covers the same compulsory subjects as the written exam, as well as an additional language assessment (English, French, Spanish, German, Russian, Italian, as well as ethnic or national minority languages). To pass the matura, students need to score at least 30 percent of points available for each compulsory subject on both the written and oral components, and take a written exam in at least one additional subject. In 2018, 20 percent of students failed the exam and 5 percent passed only one subject. Students may retake parts of the exam if they choose.

The Ministry of Education uses student achievement on grade 8 and matura exams as an indicator of school performance. The government makes school results available to the public. However, exams are not comparable across years, and the national government does not monitor trends.

Learning Supports

Poland’s nationwide network of public counseling and guidance centers, which offer mental health services as well as education and career counseling, also assist in diagnosing and developing support plans for students with special educational needs.

It is the responsibility of the municipalities to provide special education services to students who need additional support. Recommendations are made at the individual school level, and the goal is to keep special education students in mainstream schools when at all possible. Barring severe intellectual disability, students are expected to follow the same core curricula as their non-disabled peers. Class tutors (usually homeroom teachers responsible for a particular set of students) or other designated staff are in charge of coordinating support, which can include educational aids and remedial classes; small classes for students with specific learning disabilities; specialized classes such as speech therapy; and guidance and counseling. At least twice during the school year, the teacher or team of teachers responsible for a particular student conducts an assessment of the student’s performance and revises the support plan as necessary. Gifted students also fall under special needs, and are offered enrichment programs, accelerated programs and skills tournaments. Parents receive a copy of their child’s assessment and may participate in the team meetings and give input into planning. In 2017, 3.2 percent of primary and 4.5 percent of lower secondary students were identified as special needs.

Digital Platforms and Resources

The Ministry of Education and Science has an online educational platform that includes curated e-textbooks, sample curricula, and lesson plans. Teachers can use the resources on the platform to create lessons and assessments as well as communicate in real-time with other teachers and students. During the coronavirus pandemic when schools first closed, the Ministry of Digital Affairs launched an online portal with suggested resources for each week of distance learning. The resources are organized by grade level with each day’s suggested schedule covering core subjects.

In 2020, the government allocated PLN 347 million (USD$92 million) in funding through a new “Active Blackboard” program to support school purchases of laptops and equipment to assist with distance learning and help students develop digital competencies. Availability of computers and broadband is a particular issue in rural areas, and the program is intended in part to address this. The program will be implemented in 2020-24 and will also provide upgraded computer equipment to institutions that educate students with special needs.

Career and Technical Education

Development of the System

When the communist government fell from power in 1989, more than half of secondary school students were studying in vocational schools. A decade later the number had dropped to 30 percent, as more students became interested in academic higher education. In 1999, when Poland restructured its school system, it began a series of reforms to modernize and strengthen its vocational education system and help more students find opportunities in in-demand jobs and careers. First, it postponed the choice of vocational or academic education by a year and introduced a common curriculum for the first year of both options, in order to strengthen the academic foundation of vocational education students. It also introduced new flexibility into the system, extending the deadline for students newly enrolled in vocational school to switch to academic programs, as well as allowing secondary technical schools students and students who complete stage II of vocational school to take the matura exam so they can apply to higher education rather than a trade. Vocational students would likely need extra preparation in core content before taking the exam.

The Minister of National Education declared 2015 the “year of vocational schools” and initiated a series of policy initiatives aimed at strengthening vocational training by promoting closer cooperation between schools and employers. As part of that effort, Poland began formally classifying occupations so that each could be aligned with specific qualifications and training programs. Qualifications were mapped to Poland’s own eight-level qualifications framework (PQF), which aligned with the European Qualifications Framework.

In 2016, Poland launched a system of Sector Skill Councils to anticipate needs by industry. The Sector Skill Councils, organized into 25 broad industry sectors, classify occupations within their sector. The Education Minister appoints a working group to design the national core curriculum for that occupation. The current register includes 200 occupations and over 250 qualifications, which students can earn during and/or at the completion of their studies. In 2017, Poland required employers to host work-based learning experiences; extended the vocational upper secondary school program from four to five years, and introduced a two-stage “sectoral vocational” program in basic vocational schools that also gives students in these schools access to higher education. Most changes took effect at the beginning of the 2019-20 school year but the full set of programs will not be implemented until 2023-24. A 2018 regulation also required primary and secondary schools to develop their own vocational guidance programs to help students explore career options.

In 2019, Poland created a new “student apprenticeship” for which students are paid to train on-the-job while also taking coursework. While recent VET reforms have focused on increasing employer engagement, industry involvement remains a challenge, as more than half of all firms in Poland are small- and medium-sized with limited resources to devote to student training.

Governance and System Structure

The Ministry of Education and Science oversees secondary CTE and post-secondary vocational education, while employers guide national policy through the Central Employment Board. At the postsecondary level, short (one to two-and-a-half year), non-degree, school-based programs lead to vocational qualifications. Counties are responsible for overseeing all secondary schools, including vocational schools. The five-year technical school program is provided in upper secondary technical schools; the two-stage vocational programs are provided in vocational schools.

Vocational schools decide which programs to offer, in consultation with municipal and regional governments and employer partners to ensure alignment with local labor market needs. All vocational schools are required to participate in external and internal quality assurance processes. The National Center for Supporting Vocational and Continuing Education created a set of quality standards for vocational education in 2013 that address teaching programs, school staff, school material resources, organization of teaching, students with special needs, cooperation with employers, cooperation with other partners, assessment and validation of learning outcomes, counseling, and strategic management of the school. This document is available to vocational schools to help them assess their programs.

CTE Programs

Currently more than half of Polish students opt for vocational pathways at the upper secondary level, up from the 30 percent enrollment in 1999. Admission to an upper secondary program depends on the results of the grade 8 primary school exit examination, as well as student interest. Primary and secondary schools are required to provide students with guidance to help them choose their educational paths and careers.

With the 2017 reforms, there are two main secondary vocational pathways for students once they complete primary school at age 15:

A five-year technical secondary school program, with at least 50 percent work-based learning. This leads to both a vocational diploma and the matura granting access to higher education.
Two-stage vocational programs consisting of a three-year stage one program leading to a vocational qualification (after passing the vocational qualification exam) followed by an optional two-year stage two program leading to a vocational diploma and the matura.

The Central Examination Board is responsible for the certification, evaluation and issuing of vocational qualifications. Students in vocational school are required to pass an external national exam to attain a qualification. The exam includes both a written and a practical component. A passing score requires students to get at least 50 percent of possible points from the written exam and at least 75 percent from the practical exam. Students take their examinations at an accredited examination center which can be a school, a training institution or a workplace. Trained examiners registered at the regional examination boards do the evaluations. The examinations measure the knowledge and skills necessary to perform professional tasks and begin employment in a given profession or industry.

Students who earn their vocational diploma and pass the matura can continue on to Higher Schools of Professional Education. These schools offer a three-year bachelor’s program and a two-year master’s program, both with an emphasis on applied learning. Higher Schools of Professional Education are also open to general secondary school graduates who pass the matura though most of these students typically choose to attend academic universities.

Teachers and Principals

Teacher Recruitment

All Polish teachers at all levels and across all subjects are required to hold a master’s degree as well as teaching qualifications. Since 2019 this requirement has included preschool teachers, who must complete a master’s degree in Early Childhood and Early School Education. In addition to a vocational certificate and a master’s degree, vocational teachers are usually required to have at least two years of work experience in their industry area. The 2017 education reforms also required that vocational teachers complete in-service professional training to ensure they are up-to-speed on the latest industry developments.

The national Teacher Charter (similar to a collective bargaining agreement) specifies working conditions, duties, rights, professional development requirements, and salaries for teachers in Poland’s public schools and preschools. While salaries increased an average of 50 percent between 2007 and 2012 and there have been some minor pay raises since, teacher pay in Poland remains the lowest in the European Union. Many teachers are leaving the profession in frustration with poor working conditions or retiring. As of 2021, Poland has not announced a national strategy for improving teacher recruitment or retention, even though there is a growing teacher shortage.

The Teacher Charter was recently amended by the PiS party, eliminating the housing benefit as well as bonuses paid to teachers at the end of their first two years. The teaching salary schedule was extended from 10 to 15 years, requiring teachers to put in more time before securing promotions and raises. In exchange, the government introduced merit pay in the form of a monthly incentive allowance to teachers earning an “outstanding” performance appraisal. The allowance will be fully implemented by 2022.

Teacher Preparation and Induction

Admission to teacher preparation is based on the results of the matura exam. Pre-primary and primary school teacher candidates complete a master’s degree in education and choose a specialization within that. They complete a practicum as part of their program. Secondary school teachers complete a master’s degree in a subject area and then complete pedagogical training in a post-degree program. There is a required nine-month induction period for new teachers. They are assigned a mentor and must be interviewed by a qualifications board at the end of the induction period to be promoted to full-qualified teachers.

Teacher Career Progression

As teachers earn additional degrees and gain years of experience, they receive promotions and their pay rises. There is a national pay scale with specific titles for teachers, as they gain years of experience and earn degrees: trainee teacher; contractual teacher; appointed teacher; and chartered teacher. A chartered teacher has at least 20 years of teaching experience. While teachers are promoted to these positions, their job responsibilities do not necessarily change. There is also a fifth, honorary level, at which teachers with an outstanding performance record are awarded the title of school education professor. These teachers do take on new responsibilities as professors. In 2018, the majority of teachers (57 percent) were chartered teachers.

Teacher Development

The Center for Education Development, established in 2010 and overseen by the Ministry of Education and Science, conducts professional development for teachers. Teachers are required by the Teacher’s Charter to participate in continuous professional development, although how much is not specified. All teachers at all levels set professional development goals, which are approved by the school head.

During the pandemic, Poland launched a new teacher professional training program called “Lesson: Enter” to help early childhood, primary and secondary teachers use open educational resources, create and share educational content online, and make creative use of technology. Teachers were encouraged to enroll in teams of at least two to three people per school in order to reinforce and apply lessons learned.

Principal Recruitment, Education and Development

Municipal governments select principals for a period of one to five school years. They are required to have at least five years of teaching experience and to have master’s degrees in education administration. The Education System Law passed in 2001 regulates requirements for school leaders.

The principal may take on teaching responsibilities, with the teaching load depending on the size of the school. Principals are not required to engage in continuous professional development, but professional development is taken into account in the assessment of their performance.

Sources:
https://ncee.org/country/poland/

https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=POL&treshold=10&topic=EO

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Poland.

POLAND

2018 PISA SCORE
513

2015 PISA SCORE
503.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Germany

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:53:08 GMT

Which Are the Institutions of Preschool Education in Germany?

German pre-school education is largely offered by privately-run day-care centers and less by institutions established by local authorities. Preschool education providers are “Kinderkrippen” (crèches), child-minding centers, kindergarten, and day-care centers.

Priority in offering childhood education services is offered to non-public organizations, such as Churches, Welfare or Parent’s Associations. Local authorities may offer preschool education services, only if there’s a lack of private initiatives or poor services of the aforementioned providers.

Opening hours of the preschool education institutions are scheduled in cooperation between parents and managing staff. However, usually children get a 7-hour day childhood education and care, including lunch and sometimes a midday break.

Which Are the Teaching Methodology and Materials in Preschool Education in Germany?

For Children Under the Age of 3

The core educational mission of the German preschool education (age under 3) is the enhancement of communication skills amongst kids. Secondly, it is the development of their language skills through the social interaction with other toddlers and adults.

Communication and language skills are taught by language role model (educators), finger plays, singing, pictured books and additional teaching practices/instruments.

Furthermore, an important part in pre-educating children is given to the motor development. This includes increasing body awareness, self-acceptance, self-confidence and concentration amongst the toddlers.

Motor development is reached through physical activities, visiting public environments, rhythmic early education programs, singing and movement playing.

For the Children over the Age of 2

Core values that preschool education seeks to develop amongst children are the enhancement of their teamwork skills, along with their level of integration in daily life activities.

Key areas of German preschool education of children older than 2 are (1) language, writing, communication, (2) personal and social development, (3) development of values and religious education, (4) mathematics, natural sciences, (information) technology (5) fine arts/working with different media (6) body, movement, health and (7) nature and cultural environments.

Such values are taught through self-organized learning, creative learning, teamwork building activities, investigation and experimental activities.

Assessment of the Educational Achievements in Preschool Education in Germany

Children are not assessed regarding their educational achievement reached by participating in German preschool institutions. Instead, they’re constantly supervised by their educators or trainers regarding their attainment from learning activities.

The opinion of educators is discussed with parents of the children, who together agree on further measures on development of kids’ learning skills.

What If a Child Isn’t yet Ready to Begin Compulsory School Studies?

There is a middle option for children having reached the compulsory school attendance age, who yet hasn’t reached the needed development leading to further studies. This is relevant for children with disabilities and those in in need for special education. So, they attend a special school offered by some Landers, known as School Kindergarten “ Schulkindergärten ”, or a Preliminary Class “ Vorklassen ” beforehand.

Compulsory Education in Germany

What Is Considered as Compulsory Education in Germany?

All Germans are obliged to attend primary and secondary education, ever since they reach the age of 6, up until they complete a 9-year full-time schooling at Gymnasium, or 10 years of full-time years for other general education schools.

If youngsters fail to attend full-time classes at the general or vocational education schools, at upper secondary level, they’ve to attend part-time left-aside classes. This applies even if they’ve already passed the period of their compulsory education. Such obligation is known as compulsory attendance “ Berufsschule Berufsschulpflicht ” and lasts 3 years.

Other children who fail to attend at all such education and training, they’ve may be required to attend full-time classes and trainings (for vocational schools only).

Disabled youngsters have an obligation to complete compulsory education too. In dependence to their special education needs “ Sonderpädagogischer Förderbedarf ” they will attend either a normal school or a special school “ Sonderpädagogische Bildungseinrichtungen ”.

German compulsory education obliges pupils to regularly participate in school lessons, as well as in other formal and informal schooling activities/events/projects. Such compulsion extends also to their parents who’ve to regularly supervise study progress of their children and participate in school parent’s meetings. This also includes training companies which are in charge of keeping the evidence of the pupils’ attendance in the vocational training and children’s practical commitment (for vocational schools).

German Primary Education

What Is Considered Primary Education in Germany?

Grundschule (primary school) offer mandatory education through mixed-ability classes for children of age 6 until they complete grade 4 (or 6 in Berlin and Brandenburg) of school studies.

There are two primary school education systems in Germany. In a 5-day school week pre-education system, there’re 188 teaching days/annually. In a 6-day school week preschool system, there’re 208 days of teaching/annually, by including also teachings during 2 Saturdays/every month.

Primary school pupils are obliged to attend 20 to 29 courses/1 week, and 20-22 /first year. Primary school courses normally last up to 45 minutes. During 1 day up to 6 courses can be taught.

Which are the Teaching Practices in Primary Schools in Germany?

The core objective of the German primary education is development of essential understanding, skills, abilities and key competences amongst pupils.

Subjects taught in German primary schools are German language, mathematics, general studies, foreign language, art, handicrafts/textile design, music, sports, and religion/ethics. They also teach intercultural, mint, media, health, musical-aesthetic, sustainable development, and values education.

Learning objectives in primary schools are attained through engagement of pupils in planning, running, analyzing study subjects (lessons) in an adapted way, which goes along with their knowledge, interest, curiosity and concerns. Students are also encouraged to take part in organizing initiatives and interdisciplinary projects of the school.

Primary school textbooks in Germany, used as study reference, have to be approved the respective Ministry.

People suffering long-term or permanent illness or physical incapacity who couldn’t attend primary education lessons they may well receive such education at their homes.

Moreover Germany offers special primary education scheme for children of the professional travelers, who cannot attend regular primary education. Schools like School for Children of Professional Travelers “Schule für die kinder beruflich Reisender” offer separate education for such group of children, during the period they’re not traveling.

There’s even a School for Circus Children “Schule für Circuskinder”.

Germany has also vocationally oriented primary education modules. This education is offered for the children of workers in companies/institutions such as EU project BeKoSch (Development of Professional Skills for Showmen through Modules).

What’s more, Germany has International Schools offering primary education through bilingual lessons in several languages, such as the European Schools.

Which Is the Grading System in German Primary Schools?

By completing lessons of the grade 1, children are automatically transferred to the grade 2, regardless level of knowledge attained during such studies.

Starting from grade 2, these children are awarded a suitable mark, in dependence to the level of knowledge they’ve attained during studies. If failing to pass the grade, children have to repeat the grade lessons once more.

In the Pupil’s school report “Zeugnis” is issued showing all the marks achieved during a school year, and according to that is decided whether the child will pass to the next grade or has to repeat the same grade.

The progress of pupils in German primary schools is evaluated upon a 6-mark grading system as follows:

1 (very good).
2 (good).
3 (satisfactory).
4 (adequate).
5 (poor).
6 (very poor).

Does a Pupil Receive a Primary School Leaving Certificate in Germany?

There isn’t any examination upon completing a German primary school. Thus, primary school-leaving certificate aren’t usually issued, except for the Lander Baden-Württemberg and Rheinland-Pfalz.

Instead, when pupils leave a German primary school they must have reached “the Grundschule target outcomes”. Accordingly, there are issued an annual report of their studies during 4 ^th /6 ^th grade.

What Is Considered Secondary Education in Germany?

German Secondary education takes place after the primary school, and it’s separated into lower secondary level “Sekundarstufe I” and upper secondary level “Sekundarstufe II”.

The lower secondary education is the education offered for pupils of age 10 – 15/16 in grades 5/7 to 9/10. Lessons in this level are of a general nature and serve as preparation for the upper level of secondary education.

The upper secondary education is the education that pupils of age 15/16 – 18/who have completed lower level of secondary school receive for the purpose of getting a university entrance qualification or a vocational qualification. This level resumes all the courses of lower secondary level which built the basis of knowledge of the participating pupils.

Germany has various secondary schools attended by children of various abilities and various prior qualifications received in primary education.

Which Are the Types of Secondary Schools in Germany?

Federal country of Germany offers secondary education in public and private schools.

Germany’s publicly-funded secondary schools are:

German high schools issuing specialized qualifications in one study area.
“Gymnasium”. Providing intensive and in-depth general education, general knowledge for university studies, and for scientific work. It normally covers schooling years from grade 5-12 or 5-13, leading to an “Allgemeine Hochschulreife” known as “Abitur”.
“Hauptschule”. Teaching basic general education, leading to a vocational or university entrance qualification. Education in such school lasts from grade 5-9, and sometimes includes the grade 10 as well, leading to a “Hauptschulabschluss”.
“Realschule”. Offering more extensive education, leading to a vocational or university entrance qualification. It usually covers schooling years from grade 5 to 10, “Realschulabschluss”.
German schools with more than one study course “Schularten mit mehreren Bildungsgängen”. They offer 2-3 different study subjects.
German vocational schools. They offer lessons and practical placement, known as a dual system. These are the types of vocational schools available in Germany:
“Fachoberschule”. Providing 2-year education to the holders of maturity certificate “Mittlerer Schulabschluss” leading to a “Fachhochschulreife”, entitling holder to enter a university of applied sciences. If a 13 grade is held in this institution, a pupil completing it can receive a “Fachgebundene Hochschulreife” or an “Abitur”.
“Berufsoberschule”. Providing a 2-year general and in-depth education and training regarding initial vocational knowledge and training obtained during previous education, leading to a vocational qualification (or Abitur – by proving the good command in second foreign language). There is also a 3/4-year course of study which is aimed at getting a double qualification, both vocational and higher education qualification.
“Berufsfachschule”. Offering education for one or few professions which require formal recognition or leading to a vocational training qualification.
“Berufsschule”. Delivering practically oriented and interdisciplinary lessons and skills, which prepare pupils for further vocational education or for a job in a profession. They do that based on the dual system, education and training combined.
“Berufliches Gymnasium”. Providing a 3-year long secondary education program, leading to an Abitur.

Germany’s private secondary schools are the following:

Alternative schools “Ersatzschulen”. Providing equal lessons and courses as public secondary schools.
Complementary schools “Ergänzungsschulen”. Teaching additional courses, despite those that are also offered in the public secondary schools.

Which are the Objectives of the German Secondary Education?

Lower secondary education in Germany, as its core mission has the fundamental education, individual specialization, and identification of individual abilities amongst children.

German secondary education objectives are achieved by:

Engaging children intellectually, emotionally and physically.
Teaching them independence, decision making, as well as personal, social and political responsibility.
Assisting them in attaining their educational goals.
Supporting them in advancing their specialist knowledge.

General upper secondary schools in Germany aim to prepare youngsters with the needed understanding to obtain the Abitur or other university entrance qualification. With a university entrance qualification they can apply for further academic studies in any German higher education institution, or apply for a professional education and training study course.

Gymnasium offers youngsters with exhaustive understanding, expertise and know-hows for German and foreign language as well as Mathematics. These institutions also taught young people self-development, social responsibility, and participation in democratic society. Additionally, they’re informed and guided regarding academic institutions and their admission requirements, vocational sphere and access requirements, together with the employment prospect in various professions.

Upper secondary education offered during 2 full-time years by the German vocational high-schools “Berufliches Gymnasium” prepares youngsters to get a vocational qualification for a skilled work as qualified staff “Fachgebundene Hochschulreife”. Such qualification allows them to get a job in a profession requiring a formal qualification. The same time, such qualification can lead into a university entrance qualification, if the holder shows a good command on a second foreign language. Additionally, with such qualification the holder can study in a technical university, but before that, they’ve to study for 2 years until they get a maturity certificate “Mittlerer Schulabschluss”.

Which is the Grading system in the German Secondary School?

The progress of pupils in the German secondary schools is evaluated upon a 6-mark grading system as follows:

1 (very good).
2 (good).
3 (satisfactory).
4 (adequate).
5 (poor).
6 (very poor).

What Makes a Tertiary Education in Germany?

German tertiary education in Germany provides higher education for qualifying individuals, who before all, have completed secondary education in Germany or abroad which entitles them to enter higher education studies.

Who’s Responsible for Supervision of German Tertiary Education?

Higher education institutions under the Basic law enjoy the autonomy to independently manage the scholarship awarding, research and teaching activity.

For administrative issues, such as academic and governmental matters, these institutions have to be in accord with the Lander’s ministry.

Which Are the Institutions of German Tertiary Education?

Higher education studies (tertiary education providers) in Germany are named the recognized institutions providing higher education study courses leading to a profession that addresses needs of the local and international labour market.

Germany’s education providers, recognized as Higher Education Institutions are:

Universities “Universitäten” and Equal Institutions.
“Technische Hochschulen”/”Technische Universitäten”.
“Pädagogische Hochschulen”.
Theological colleges.
Universities of Applied Sciences “Fachhochschulen”.
Art and Music Colleges.
Higher Education Institutions for Federal Armed Forces.
Higher Education Institutions Offering Dual Studies “Berufsakademie” (BA).
Institutions of Continuing Vocational Education “Fachschulen” And “Fachakademien” In Berlin. According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), the education received from these institutions is equal to the first level of higher education.

Source: https://www.studying-in-germany.org/german-education-system/

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Germany.

GERMANY

2018 PISA SCORE
500.3

2015 PISA SCORE
508

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Finland

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:50:18 GMT

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Finland.

FINLAND

2018 PISA SCORE
489

2015 PISA SCORE
522.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

South Korea

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:47:52 GMT

INTRODUCTION: THE PRIORITY OF EDUCATION IN THE WORLD’S MOST EDUCATED SOCIETY

By some measures, South Korea—the Republic of Korea—is the most educated country in the world. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 70 percent of 24- to 35-year-olds in the nation of 51.5 million people have completed some form of tertiary education—the highest percentage worldwide and more than 20 percentage points above comparable attainment rates in the United States. Korea also has a top-quality school system when measured by student performance in standardized tests: The country consistently ranks among the best-performing countries in the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment (PISA).

At the tertiary level, Korea’s universities have less of a resounding global reputation; nevertheless the country was ranked 22nd among 50 countries in the 2018 Ranking of National Higher Education Systems by the University's 21 network of research universities. The Economist Intelligence Unit, meanwhile, recently ranked Korea 12th out of 35 countries in its “Worldwide Educating for the Future Index,” tied with the United States.

Korea’s high educational attainment levels are but one sign of the country’s singular transformation and meteoric economic rise over the past 70 years. Along with the other Asian “tiger economies” of Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan, Korea represents one of the most remarkable economic success stories of the 20th century, envied by many developing countries up to today.

In the 1950s, after the devastating Korean War, Korea was still an impoverished agricultural society and one of the poorest countries in the world. Today, it is the world’s 12th largest economy and the fourth largest in Asia. Seoul—Korea’s capital and main metropolis with nearly 10 million inhabitants—is said to have the highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita after Tokyo, New York, and Los Angeles. Contemporary Korea is an advanced high-tech nation with one of the highest Internet penetration rates on the globe.

A laser focus on education was an important pillar of this extraordinary economic rise. In the 1980s, Korea’s government began to strategically invest in human capital development, research, and technological innovation. Korean households simultaneously devoted much of their resources to education, thereby fueling a drastic expansion in education participation. Between the early 1980s and the mid-2000s, the country’s tertiary gross enrollment ratio increased fivefold, while the number of students in higher education jumped from 539,000 in 1980 to 3.3 million in 2015, per UNESCO data.

In fact, it’s hard to find another country in the world that places greater emphasis on education than South Korea. Educational attainment in contemporary Korea is of paramount social importance and strongly correlated with social mobility, income levels, and positions of power. Graduates of Korea’s top three universities dominate the country and occupy the majority of high-ranking government posts and management positions in Korea’s powerful business conglomerates (chaebols).

Competition over admission into top universities is consequently extremely fierce, underscoring Korea’s reputation for having one of the most merciless education systems in the world—usually described as “stressful, authoritarian, brutally competitive, and meritocratic.” Consider that the country’s students devote more time to studying than children in any other OECD country, while parents spend large parts of their income on private tutoring in what has been dubbed an “educational arms race.” The country is said to have the largest private tutoring industry in the world.

By some accounts, many Korean children spend 16 hours or more a day at school and in after-class prep schools, called hagwons. A 2014 survey by Korea’s National Youth Policy Institute found that nearly 53 percent of high school students didn’t get enough sleep because they studied at night; 90 percent of respondents said that they had less than two hours of spare time on weekdays.

Observers, thus, have described Korean society as having an “almost cult-like devotion to learning,” with students being “test-aholics” steered by “tutor-aholic” parents. Studying long hours at hagwons has become so ubiquitous and excessive that Korean authorities in the 2000’s deemed it necessary to impose curfews, usually at 10 p.m., and patrol prep schools in areas like Seoul’s Gangnam district, where many of these schools are concentrated—only to drive nighttime cram classes underground behind closed doors.

This extreme competitiveness has created a number of social problems: Suicide, for instance, is the leading cause of death among teens in Korea, which has the highest suicide rate overall in the entire OECD. Student surveys have shown that poor grades and fears of failure are major reasons for suicidal thoughts, while Korea simultaneously has a growing teenage drinking problem.

Social pressures to succeed in the labor market, meanwhile, have given rise to a phenomenon called “employment cosmetics”—one of the driving factors behind Korea’s boom in cosmetic surgery, since job applicants are commonly required to submit an ID photo, and many employers factor physical attractiveness into their hiring decisions. In another sign of competition at any cost, private household debt in Korea is soaring, driven in part by surging expenditures on education and private tutoring.

Social pressures are further amplified by Korea’s relatively high youth unemployment rate, which stood at 11.2 percent in 2016—a record number not seen since the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s. Despite all the time, finances, and emotional resources invested in their education, Korean youth find it increasingly difficult to secure desired quality, socially prestigious jobs. The country’s obsession with higher education continues to sustain a “college education inflation,” flooding the Korean labor market with a supply of university graduates that hold degrees of deflated value whose earnings prospects are decreasing.

While a university degree used to be a solid foundation for social success in Korea, observers have noted that many current graduates lack the skills needed for employability in a modern information society, and that the education system is too narrowly focused on university education, while underemphasizing vocational training. Korea’s Confucian-influenced system has also been criticized for relying too much on rote memorization and university entrance prep at the expense of creativity and independent thought.

Notably, and perhaps counterintuitively, the growing unemployment rates among recent university graduates and the increasingly ferocious competition in Korea’s education system exist despite Korea being one of the fastest-aging societies in the world. The country’s fertility rates are in rapid decline, and its college-age population is shrinking.

By 2060, more than 40 percent of the Korean population is expected to be over 65, and the country’s population is projected to shrink by 13 percent to 42.3 million in 2050. This cataclysmic demographic shift is already causing the closure of schools and universities, as well as reductions in university admissions quotas. If this aging trend can’t be reversed, it could lead to severe labor shortages and jeopardize Korea’s prosperity, if not ruin the country. Korean youths will likely find it much easier to find employment, but they will shoulder the heavy burden of supporting the country’s rapidly growing elderly population.

EDUCATION REFORMS UNDER KOREA’S NEW GOVERNMENT: CREATING A LESS COMPETITIVE SYSTEM

At present, there is already adamant political pushback in Korea against the current state of affairs, notably the rampant favoritism and nepotism in the hiring practices of Korea’s all-powerful chaebols and corruption in the Korean government, laid bare in the criminal embezzlement scandal that led to the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye. Following the scandal, leftist President Moon Jae-in won a landslide election victory in May 2017 running on an anti-corruption platform that included promises to reform the education system and reduce youth unemployment.

Moon’s bold education reform proposals seek to eventually integrate all state universities into one large university system. The goal is to reduce competition between institutions and equalize the chances of graduates in Korea’s cutthroat labor market, which is heavily skewed toward graduates of Seoul’s top universities.

The government also plans to reduce university admissions fees, and decongest school curricula and make them more flexible by introducing more elective subjects. Elite private high schools (autonomous schools) and international schools that teach foreign curricula are slated to be turned into tuition-free schools that teach standard national curricula in order to rein in elite schools.

To ensure the longevity of the reforms irrespective of changes in government, they are intended to be implemented by a new independent state education committee, rather than the politically controlled Ministry of Education (MOE). That said, as of this writing no concrete steps have yet been taken to form this new committee.

But the Moon administration is certainly pushing ahead with reforms. Current policy initiatives focus on decreasing competition in university admissions, thereby making access to education and employment more socially equitable, and reducing the influence of prestigious universities, notably the country’s top three institutions: Seoul National University, Korea University, and Yonsei University, collectively referred to as “SKY universities.” Since admissions tests at top universities are so demanding that they can only be passed with the help of extensive private tutoring, the government in 2017 ordered several universities to ease their admission tests—a move intended to curb private tutoring and improve the chances of students from low-income households, who are unable to afford expensive prep schools.

Other recent reforms include the adoption of “blind hiring” procedures in the public sector—a practice the government wants to extend to the private sector as well. Under the new guidelines, applicants no longer have to reveal the name of their university or GPAs on their application, nor provide personal information about age, weight, or family background, or submit a head shot.

The goal of the reforms is to make hiring decisions based mostly on specific job-related skills. Some private employers have started to hire candidates based on audition-type presentations or skills examinations, rather than academic and personal background, but there is nevertheless strong resistance to blind hiring from companies and privileged graduates of top universities. President Moon’s education reform agenda is no doubt ambitious and groundbreaking, but it remains to be seen if the government can prevail in realizing all its objectives, given the vested interests of elitist “old-boy networks” in chaebols and top universities.

OUTBOUND STUDENT MOBILITY

Despite a recent slump in overseas enrollments by Korean students, Korea is one of the top sending countries of international students worldwide after China, India and Germany. The number of Koreans enrolled in degree programs abroad peaked at 128,994 in 2011, after doubling from 64,943 in 1997, according to data provided by the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS). Since then, the number of degree-seeking Korean international students has decreased by 15.8 percent to an estimated 108,608 students in 2017.

Trends in Korean outbound mobility are driven by a number of influences, including economic factors, increased participation rates and demand-supply gaps in higher education, demographic trends, and the rising demand for English language education.

In the decades leading up to the 2011 peak, the number of Korean youths completing upper-secondary school surged, drastically increasing the pool of potential international students, while simultaneously exacerbating supply shortages that made access to quality university education increasingly difficult and competitive. Robust economic growth and rising prosperity simultaneously allowed more people to afford an overseas education.

The rapid expansion of the higher education system also led to the creation of growing numbers of private institutions of lesser quality with only a minority of the very best students admitted to the top institutions. This trend incentivized greater numbers of students to pursue education abroad, especially since Korean society came to value English-language education. These developments created a fertile environment for Korean outbound student mobility.

Korea’s demographic decline has since shrunk the college-age population and reduced the number of Korean students, affecting not only domestic enrollments, but also the total number of students heading overseas: The country’s outbound student mobility ratio1 has dropped from 3.8 percent in 2011 to 3.3 percent in 2016. That said, the current downturn is not only due to demographic change.

Reasons for the Slowdown in Outbound Student Flows

One of the reasons for this contraction is that it has become increasingly difficult for Koreans to afford an expensive overseas education. Korea’s economic expansion has lost steam in recent years, making double-digit growth rates a thing of the past—GDP growth dropped from 6.5 percent in 2010 to 3 percent in 2017 (World Bank).

Korea’s economic slowdown has been accompanied by rising household debt, which hit a record high in 2017, fueled by soaring housing costs, high interest rates, and growing expenditures on education, including private tutoring. The McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) noted in a 2013 study that more than 50 percent of middle class households were “cashflow-constrained” and that Korea now has the lowest private savings rate in the OECD.

In addition, unemployment among university graduates is not only high, it exceeds unemployment rates among graduates of vocational high schools, leaving many families doubting if an expensive university degree is still worth it, according to MGI.

With respect to overseas education, such considerations are likely influenced by the fact that some Korean employers are reluctant to hire graduates of foreign schools. In fact, a foreign degree can be a liability in Korea’s hierarchical work environment. Graduates of overseas schools lack the social connections domestic students are able to develop—which are so critical to finding employment in Korea. As the New York Times put it, the “edge that a foreign degree gives a South Korean graduate” has worn off in the wake of ever-increasing numbers of Koreans earning foreign degrees. Many Korean families now worry “that overseas study is no longer the guarantee of economic security that it once was.”

Moreover, since Korean universities increasingly offer English-taught programs, there is less incentive to study abroad to improve English skills. Dwindling student numbers, meanwhile, have narrowed the demand and supply gap in higher education to the extent that the Korean government is now forced to close down growing numbers of universities. This is bound to affect cost-benefit calculations, especially since the Korean government is simultaneously undertaking heightened efforts to improve the quality of its higher education institutions (HEIs), while ramping up scholarship funding.

The Korean government recently also subsidized the establishment of foreign branch campuses on a newly created “global university campus” in the Incheon Free Economic Zone close to Seoul. Having foreign branch campuses in Korea means that Koreans can now earn a foreign degree without leaving the country. The State University of New York at Stony Brook, George Mason University, the University of Utah, and Belgium’s Ghent University now operate branch campuses in Incheon. In addition, Germany’s University of Nürnberg is running a branch campus in Busan, while the STC-Netherlands Maritime University operates a campus in Gwangyang City, and the Scottish University of Aberdeen is expected to soon open a campus at Hadong.

IN BRIEF: THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF SOUTH KOREA

Korea’s education system underwent a tremendous expansion since the end of the Korean War. In 1945, Korea had an estimated adult literacy rate of only 22 percent. Less than 2 percent of the population was enrolled in higher education. Today, the country has achieved universal adult literacy, estimated to range between 98 and 100 percent, and the tertiary gross enrollment ratio stands at a lofty 93 percent (2015).

Influenced by the U.S. occupation of South Korea, the country adopted a school system patterned after the U.S. system: It comprises six years of elementary education and six years of secondary education, divided into three years of middle school and three years of high school.

In the 1950s, elementary education was made compulsory for all children, which led to the universalization of elementary education by the 1960s. Beginning in 1985, the length of compulsory education was then extended by another three years, and all children in Korea are now mandated to stay in school until the end of grade nine (age 15). In reality, however, this minimum requirement is of little practical relevance in present-day Korea. As of 2014, 98 percent of Koreans went on to upper-secondary and completed high school at minimum. The advancement rate from lower-secondary middle school to upper-secondary high school stood at 99 percent as early as 1996.

Since the 1960s, enrollment rates in the school system spiked drastically in tandem with rapid industrialization and the achievement of universal elementary education. According to data provided by the Korean MOE, the number of high schools in Korea alone increased from 640 in 1960 to 2,218 in 2007, while the number of students enrolled in these schools jumped from 273,434 in 1960 to 2.3 million in 1990. This sudden expansion overburdened the system and resulted in overcrowded classrooms and teacher shortages—problems that caused the Korean government to begin levying a dedicated education tax in 1982 in order to generate revenues for accommodating growing demand.

The aging of the population has since eased pressures somewhat and led to significantly lower numbers of children enrolling in the school system—leading to other problems, discussed below. According to UNESCO data, the number of elementary students dropped from 4 million in 2005 to 2.7 million in 2015, while the number of upper-secondary students recently decreased from close to 2 million in 2009 to 1.8 million in 2015.

This demographic shift has caused the closure of thousands of schools throughout Korea, almost 90 percent of them located in rural regions, which are increasingly being bled out by a rapid out-migration to the cities. As the New York Times noted in 2015, since 1982 “… nearly 3,600 schools have closed across South Korea, most of them in rural towns, for lack of children. Today, many villages look like ghost towns, with … once-bustling schools standing in weedy ruins ….” However, despite this demographic shift, Korea in 2015 still had some of the largest lower-secondary class sizes in the OECD, as well as an above-average teacher-to-student ratio in upper-secondary education—circumstances that are likely due to rapidly growing enrollments in urban areas.

Traditionally, Korean schools have been segregated by sex—coeducational schools did not begin to emerge until the 1980s. Only 5 percent of Korea’s schools were coeducational as of 1996. The number of coeducational schools has since increased significantly, but the majority of Korea’s schools are still single-sex. Even at coeducational schools, individual classes may still be taught separately for girls and boys. In Seoul, about one-third of high schools are coeducational with pupils in the city being randomly assigned to single-sex and coeducational schools.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

Korea has 17 administrative divisions: nine provinces, six metropolitan cities—which have equal status to the provinces—and Seoul, which is designated as a special city. In addition there is the special autonomous city of Sejong, which was recently created to become Korea’s new administrative capital in an attempt to reduce the influence of Seoul, Korea’s towering economic and administrative center. Another goal is to stimulate economic development in other parts of the country. Sejong City now houses the majority of government ministries and agencies, including the administrative headquarters of the MOE, which controls most aspects of education.

According to the MOE’s website, it “plans and coordinates educational policies, formulates policies that govern the primary, secondary, and higher educational institutes, publishes and approves textbooks, provides administrative and financial support for all levels of the school system, supports local education offices and national universities, operates the teacher training system and is responsible for overseeing lifelong education and developing human resource policies.”

Korea has historically had a centralized system of government. However, Korea’s administrative divisions and municipal governments have over the decades been given much greater autonomy in terms of budgeting and administration of the school system in order to better accommodate local needs. There were 17 provincial and metropolitan offices and 176 district offices administering education at the local level in 2016. That said, local autonomy is limited and overall education policies are set at the national level, while higher education remains under the auspices of the national MOE.

In devising policies, the MOE relies on advice from the Educational Policy Advisory Council, a body consisting of rotating experts from various fields in education. The quality assurance and accreditation of universities falls under the purview of the Korean Council for University Education (KCUE), an independent, non-governmental university association.

Academic Calendar and Language of Instruction

The academic year in Korea runs from March to February, divided by a summer break in July/August and a winter break in December/January. Korean children attend classes 5.5 days a week and spend about 220 days a year in school versus 175 to 180 days in the United States. The academic calendar at universities is typically divided into two four-month semesters with a two-month break between each semester.

Korean is the language of instruction in schools, even though private international schools and certain specialized high schools offer English-medium instruction (EMI). In higher education, Korean is still predominant, but EMI has spread rapidly since the 1990s, when the Korean government started to encourage universities to offer English-taught classes. Some universities, like the Pohang University of Science and Technology, now teach more than 90 percent of their courses in English. About 30 percent of lectures at Korea’s top 10 universities were taught in English as of 2013—a sign that EMI is being pursued vigorously by Korean universities, partially because it affects international university rankings and makes Korean institutions more attractive to international students.

English language teaching is generally highly prioritized in Korea, since it’s the language of international business and science, and English competency is highly important for employment prospects, university admissions, and social status. The government systematically promotes high-quality English language teaching, and there have been suggestions by previous governments to make English the main language of instruction in schools. Private households, meanwhile, spend large sums of money on private English tutoring. Many Korean children now start learning English in kindergarten before entering elementary education. This craze for learning English has become so excessive, that the Korean government in 2018 banned the teaching of English prior to third grade, since it appeared to slow pupils’ proficiency in Korean. Officially, English is introduced as a subject in third grade at all Korean schools.

Elementary Education

Elementary education is provided free of charge at public schools and is six years in duration. It starts at the age of six, even though gifted students may sometimes be allowed to enter at age five. Although preschool is not compulsory, about 90 percent of children age three to five attend it.

Many pupils attend private kindergartens, often for the entire day, but the government has over the past decades expanded public options, and since 2012/13 provided universal, free, half-day preschool programs, so as not to disadvantage children from lower-income households. Free public full-day programs are currently being planned as well.

Pupils study a set national curriculum that is updated every 10 years; the latest revision was adopted in 2015. During the first two years, pupils study Korean, mathematics, ethics, and general social formation subjects called “wise living,” “pleasant living,” and “we are first graders.” English, social studies, science, arts, music, and physical education are added in the third grade, at which point the social formation subjects are no longer offered. Promotion and graduation are based on internal school-based tests and assessments at all stages of the Korean school system. In an attempt to move away from an overly test-driven system, the current curriculum emphasizes the fostering of creative thinking and prioritizes essays over multiple-choice tests.

Lower-Secondary Education (Middle School)

Lower-secondary education lasts three years (grades seven to nine) and concludes with the award of a certificate of graduation from middle school. The subjects taught are the same as in elementary education, except for the addition of either technical education or home science. Notably, pupils now enjoy a “free semester” in which they don’t have to take written examinations or pass other school assessments—a change that was introduced to promote “happy education for all children.”

Lower-secondary education is provided free of charge at both public and private schools and is open to all pupils who have completed elementary education—there are no entrance examinations. To avoid competition over admission into desired schools, the Korean government since the 1970s implemented a so-called school “equalization policy” that took admissions decisions away from schools and placed them under government control. Today, this policy covers all middle schools, which means that all elementary school graduates are being assigned to schools within their districts via a computerized lottery system. Private schools are mandated to teach the national curriculum and offer tuition-free education in return for receiving subsidies from the government.

According to UNESCO, 18 percent of lower-secondary students and 43 percent of upper-secondary students were enrolled in private schools in 2015.

Upper-Secondary Education (High School)

Upper-secondary education in Korea is neither compulsory nor free. It is much more diversified than lower-secondary education. While all high school programs last for three years (grades 10 to 12), they are taught by a variety of different schools, such as general academic high schools and special-purpose high schools, that offer specialized education in areas like foreign languages, arts, sports, or science.

In addition, there are specialized vocational high schools that offer employment-geared education, as well as designated autonomous high schools, which are mostly privately run elite institutions that have greater autonomy over their curricula, and which were originally created to diversify school options in Korea.

However, the future of these autonomous institutions is currently uncertain. The Moon administration has criticized autonomous schools for being little more than exclusivist prep schools for admission into top universities, and seeks to convert them into regular schools. Autonomous schools are very expensive and elitist, admitting only the highest scoring students, and therefore seen as exacerbating social inequalities.

In 2016, 71.7 percent of upper-secondary students were enrolled in general academic schools, compared with 16.6 percent in specialized vocational schools and around 11.5 percent in autonomous schools and special-purpose schools, although these percentages fluctuate from year to year. Enrollments in vocational schools, for instance, have dropped drastically since the 1990s, presumably because of growing social preferences for university education and Korea’s shift from an industrial to a service-based economy.

Admission requirements at Korean high schools vary and depend on the type and location of the school. Korean authorities have been less forceful in implementing school equalization for high schools than for middle schools—only about 60 percent of upper-secondary schools are currently located within so-called “equalization zones.” In these districts, admission is based on a lottery system, provided that students pass a general competency examination. Outside of equalization zones, however, admission is highly competitive and driven by free market mechanisms, which means that eligibility is usually determined by GPAs and entrance examinations, as well as interviews or teacher recommendations.

General Academic High School

All students in general academic high schools study a common core curriculum in grade 10, which features largely the same subjects as the middle school curriculum. In grades 11 and 12, students then choose elective subjects in addition to common subjects like Korean, mathematics, English, and a second foreign language.

Until recently, students had to choose between a natural science-oriented stream and a liberal arts-focused stream, but these streams have been abolished under the current curriculum. In an attempt to make education more holistic and to foster creative thinking, students can now freely choose subjects from both streams. Available subjects include physics, chemistry, biology, earth science, history, geography, economics, or politics. Most students choose their electives based on their intended field of study in university.

Promotion to the next grade is based on educational assessment and evaluation, with midterm and final exams at the end of each semester. Academic transcripts usually provide detailed information about academic performance, class ranking, and attendance. Students who complete all required 204 credit units are awarded a certificate of graduation from high school.

Specialized (Vocational) High Schools

The name of vocationally oriented high schools has changed over the years—they used to be called vocational high schools, then technical high schools, but are currently referred to as “specialized schools.” Vocational upper-secondary education prepares students for entry into the labor force as skilled workers, as well as for further education. The curriculum is divided into a general education component of about 32 percent. About 42 percent is vocational study, with the remainder devoted to other learning activities, which may include industrial internships.

Students study the standard academic core curriculum in grade 10 before specializing in a vocational field, such as business, agriculture, engineering, technology, fishery, or marine transportation in grades 11 and 12. The majority of vocational high schools currently use learning modules developed by the MOE and the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training on the basis of Korea’s National Competency Standards framework.

Graduates are awarded certificates of graduation that are formally equivalent to high school diplomas from other types of schools and that provide access to tertiary education. However, far fewer (and decreasing) graduates in the vocational track pursue higher education. Many continue their studies at junior colleges rather than at four-year universities.

The Korean government seeks to promote labor market entry directly after high school and strengthen vocational skills training with an “employment first, advancement to university later” approach. To this end, Korea in 2008 established a new type of vocational school, the so-called Meister schools, which teach curricula tailored to industry needs in fields like banking, social services, dental hygiene, maritime industries, or semiconductor development. These curricula are developed in coordination with local companies and incorporate industrial internships; teaching faculty may include industry experts.

Even though only 4 percent of high school students were enrolled in Meister schools as of 2013, these well-funded schools have raised the public’s awareness of vocational high schools in Korea and made them more attractive, especially since the partnering government agencies and companies—which include chaebols like LG Electronics—typically guarantee employment for graduates.

Meister school graduates are not allowed to enroll in universities until they work full time for three consecutive years. However, entry into tertiary education has been eased by growing numbers of HEIs adopting special admissions policies that allow Meister school graduates to enroll without sitting for the national college examinations, after completing their three years of full-time employment.

University Admissions

All Korean high school students who intend to apply to university must pass the national University College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT), commonly called Suneung in Korean, administered by the Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE). Held in November each year, this high-stakes examination is a major event during which businesses and the stock market open late to prevent traffic jams, while bus and subway services are increased to ensure that students arrive on time. In 2017, about 593,000 high school students registered for the Suneung. Underscoring the importance of the exams, air traffic in Korea is suspended during the listening section of the eight-hour test.

Depending on their desired academic majors, students choose nine examination subjects from the fields of Korean language, mathematics, English, “investigation” (that is, social studies, science, or vocational education), and a second foreign language or Chinese characters (Hanja) and literary classics. Korean history is a mandatory subject for all candidates. Some subjects can be taken at two different levels of difficulty. Students that take the CSAT can apply to three different universities at a time.

The test is mostly in multiple-choice format; the final CSAT report lists the scores as well as percentile rankings in all subjects except for English and Korean history. While the vast majority of candidates pass the test, students who fail can retake it. Increasing numbers of students also retake the exams to improve their scores or because they wish to switch majors.

The CSAT scores are a key admission criterion at many universities; near-perfect CSAT scores are a baseline admission threshold at top institutions like the SKY universities. Several Korean HEIs admit students based on a combination of high school records and the CSAT.

However, universities are not obligated to use the CSAT results for admissions. In 2018, only 22.7 percent of freshman students were admitted exclusively on the basis of CSAT scores, whereas the majority of students were admitted based on other criteria, such as high school grade averages, university admissions tests, essays and letters of recommendation, practical tests, extracurricular activities, or interviews. Most of these admissions are through “early admissions,” for which candidates apply in September before the annual CSAT exams in November.

Even though the Suneung is considered one of the most challenging university entrance examinations in the world, several Korean universities conduct major-related entrance examinations in addition to CSAT, which tests students’ knowledge of the standard high school curriculum. University admissions in Korea are highly competitive, especially at top institutions like the SKY universities, which admit only the top 2 percent of CSAT scorers.

The current Korean government considers the CSAT the most objective and socially equitable admission criterion; it is seeking to increase use of the test in university admissions. It recently mandated that universities admit at least 30 percent of their students based on the Suneung by 2022. At the same time, the MOE is attempting to make passing the examination easier by replacing percentile rankings with absolute grading in the second foreign language and Chinese characters subject tests within the next four years.

In addition, the government promotes policies similar to affirmative action by requiring mandatory special admissions quotas for students from rural regions. Given the ubiquity of private tutoring, students from rural regions and lower income households tend to score lower in the CSAT and are disadvantaged in university admissions in general compared with students from affluent metropolitan centers like Seoul.

Overall, admissions quotas at Korean universities, which are set by the MOE for both public and private institutions, are currently being reduced drastically because of population aging and the concomitant decline in tertiary enrollments. In August 2018, the Korean government announced that more than 50 HEIs will face cuts of up to 35 percent in their student intake in 2019.

Other institutions are urged to voluntarily decrease their intake, or are being merged, ordered to share professors, or closed down altogether. In 2017, the MOE already shuttered eight “unviable” universities. The Korean Educational Development Institute estimated in 2011 that about 100 universities will have to be closed by 2040. By some accounts, the number of tertiary students in Korea will by then have decreased by more than 50 percent.

Higher Education

Like its school system, Korea’s higher education system is patterned after that of the United States. Its standard structure includes associate degrees awarded by junior colleges, and four-year bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and doctoral degrees awarded by universities.

Between 2011 and 2016, the number of Korean students who entered higher education programs declined by 10 percent. After rapidly increasing by 419 percent between 1980 and 2000, the total number of tertiary enrollments in Korea, likewise, has recently decreased from 3.7 million in 2013 to 3.4 million in 2017, as per the Korean Educational Statistics Service (KESS). About 60 percent of these students are enrolled in undergraduate programs at universities, 30.5 percent at junior colleges and other institutions, and 9.5 percent in graduate programs. According to UNESCO, more than 58 percent of tertiary students in 2016 were men, even though enrollments by women have grown appreciably in recent years—in 2000 women made up only a third of the tertiary student population.

Higher Education Institutions

As of 2016, there were 430 HEIs in Korea compared with only 265 in 1990. Exploding demand for university education over the past decades has been accompanied by a rapidly growing number of private providers springing up to accommodate this demand. More than 80 percent of HEIs are now privately owned—a fact that is mirrored in 80 percent of tertiary students being enrolled in private institutions, per UNESCO.

Private HEIs include top research universities like Korea University, Sungkyunkwan University, and Yonsei University, as well as various for-profit providers of lesser quality. The size, quality, and funding levels of Korea’s HEIs differ greatly, resulting in a stratified university system dominated by prestigious top institutions in Seoul. The largest Korean HEI in terms of enrollments is the Korea National Open University, a public distance education provider with more than 136,000 students headquartered in Seoul.

Korea’s HEIs have historically been tightly regulated by the government, even though restrictions on universities have been eased significantly since the mid-1990s, and the MOE currently seeks to further increase the autonomy of HEIs. Public institutions are directly supervised by the MOE and private HEIs operate under similar rules as public institutions. In other words, they are constrained by a higher degree of regulation than private HEIs in other countries.

Korean HEIs include 138 junior colleges, the vast majority of them private, and 189 universities—a group that comprises national universities and private institutions. Most universities are multi-disciplinary institutions that comprise multiple departments, but there are also mono-specialized universities like the engineering-focused Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology. In addition, there are 10 specialized universities of education, two industrial universities, a number of polytechnics, and distance education universities, as well as other providers like “intra-company universities” set up for employees in specific industries. There are 1,153 graduate schools, almost all of which are incorporated into universities, but may also operate as stand-alone institutions. (All numbers are according to 2017 KESS statistics. For a classification of different types of HEIs, see the MOE’s website.)

Beyond merging and closing institutions amid demographic decline, the Korean government currently seeks to strengthen industrial-academic cooperation and restructure several universities into smaller, more specialized, and more research-oriented institutions that have greater autonomy in order to create world-class institutions that concentrate on graduate education. Universities in provincial regions are being supported through the imposition of mandatory employment quotas for local graduates in local industries.

Quality Assurance and Accreditation

HEIs can only be set up with the approval of the MOE, which has wide-ranging authority over matters like curricula, degree structures, admissions quotas, or the hiring of faculty. In 2010, Korea implemented a mandatory independent accreditation process for universities under the purview of the Korean University Accreditation Institute (KUAI), an organization affiliated with the Korean Council of University Education, a private association of Korea’s universities. In addition to institutional KUAI accreditation, degree programs in professional disciplines are accredited individually by bodies like the Accreditation Board for Engineering Education of Korea, the Korean Institute of Medical Education and Evaluation, or the Korea Architectural Accrediting Board.

Institutional KUAI accreditation is granted for periods of five years, whereas program-based accreditation is typically granted for periods of from four to six years. In the case of shortcomings, institutions and programs are accredited conditionally for two- or three-year periods during which institutions must address inadequacies. Institutions are evaluated via self-assessment, site inspections, and other objective criteria.

Quality criteria stipulated by the KUAI include adequate financial and management structures, teaching staff, facilities, student retention rates, learning outcomes, research output, student satisfaction, and commitment to quality improvement and social contributions to local communities and economic development. As of 2018, 170 universities had obtained accreditation from KUAI.

To promote quality in higher education and establish criteria for the inevitable downsizing and closure of HEIs, the government of former President Park Geun-hye also introduced a new evaluation system for HEIs that ranked universities in five different categories, from excellent to very poor (A to E). HEIs ranked excellent were allowed to voluntarily reduce their student intake, while all others became subject to mandatory capacity cuts, funding cuts, or merger or closure, depending on their ranking. More than 25 universities were classified as poor in 2017 and are in danger of closure in the near future.

In response to sharp criticism of the ranking, the Moon administration has made some changes to the evaluation process, but in 2018 ordered further cuts in university seats, which are slated to be reduced by an additional 120,000 seats by 2023. Ranking is tied to government funding: Top-performing HEIs are designated as “autonomously competent” institutions and rewarded with higher funding levels.

International University Rankings

Given Korea’s high level of economic development and its strong focus on education, Korean top universities don’t fare as well in international university rankings as Korean policy makers would like them to. Various initiatives, from the “Brain Pool” and “Brain Korea 21” programs of the 1990s to the current Industry-University Cooperation project, have therefore been dedicated to boosting the research output and international competitiveness of Korean universities.

In the late 2000s, Korea allocated approximately USD$600 million to the recruitment of foreign researchers in an initiative called “world class university” program. Such initiatives helped to significantly increase the percentage of foreign faculty at Korean HEIs5 and fueled rapid increases in research output. For instance, Korea is now the world’s leading country in publishing academic research in collaboration with industry partners. However, despite strong advances in modernization and internationalization, the Korean education system is still somewhat insular and its HEIs continue to trail other Asian countries like China, Japan and India in terms of international journal citations and other ranking criteria like employer reputation.

There are two Korean universities ranked among the top 100 in the current 2019 Times Higher Education World University Rankings – the flagship Seoul National University – SNU (ranked at 63rd place) and Sungkyunkwan University, a private institution said to be East Asia’s oldest university, at position 82. This compares to three Chinese, two Japanese and two Singaporean universities among the top 100. Ten Korean universities are included in the current Shanghai (ARWU) Rankings, but none among the top 100. This compares to 51 Chinese universities and 16 Japanese included in the top 500, six of them among the top 100. SNU and Sungkyunkwan University are the highest ranked Korean institutions.

In the QS World University Rankings, Korean universities have advanced noticeably in recent years – there are now five Korean universities featured among the top 100 compared with only three in 2016. Seoul National University ranks 36th worldwide and is the 11th highest ranked institution among Asian universities, followed by the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (rank 40), Pohang University of Science and Technology (83), Korea University (86), and Sungkyunkwan University (100).

Education Spending

Compared to other OECD countries, a high share of education expenditures in Korea is borne by private households making said expenditures a pressing social issue – fully 64 percent of tertiary education spending came from private sources in 2015. The share of private spending in elementary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education is much lower – 14 percent in 2013 – but total private expenditures related to schooling are rising and reached a record high in 2017.

Both public and private HEIs, in particular, are heavily dependent on tuition fees, which average USD$8.500 per annum and range anywhere from USD$1,500 to USD$20,000 per semester, depending on the program and institution. Tuition fee hikes caused growing social resistance and student protests in recent years. In response, the Korean government enacted substantial tuition cuts and expanded scholarship funding. Korean students are also eligible for government loans.

Overall, public spending on education has increased significantly in recent years, causing the share of private expenditures to drop by 24 percent between 2008 and 2013, according to the OECD. Per UNESCO, public education spending as a share of GDP grew from 4.86 percent in 2011 to 5.25 percent in 2015. While that is pretty high for a developed economy, government spending per tertiary student still remains below OECD average. Education spending as a percentage of all government expenditures has fluctuated over the past decade and stood at 18.2 percent in 2017.6 Total government expenditures on education have tripled since 2000 and will be increased by another 10.5 percent to 70.9 trillion won (USD$63.9 billion) in 2019.

Credit System and Higher Education Grading Scales

The credit system and grading scales used by Korean HEIs closely resemble those of the United States. One Korean credit unit usually denotes one contact hour (50 minutes) taken over 15 or 16 weeks, and most courses bear three credit units. Most four-year bachelor’s programs require at least 130 credits for graduation, even though 140-credit programs also exist. Two-year master’s programs usually require at least 24 credits plus a thesis for graduation, but some programs have higher credit requirements.

Typical grading scales include 0-100 numerical scales with 60 (D) being the minimum passing grade for individual courses at the undergraduate level. In addition, there are A-F letter grading scales, of which there are two variations with either 4.3 or 4.5 as the highest grade point (see below). Graduation from undergraduate programs usually requires an overall grade point average of at least 70 or C (2.00). At the graduate level, graduation generally requires a minimum final GPA of 3.0 (B or 80). The passing grade for individual courses in graduate programs may be higher than in undergraduate programs (that is, 70 or C). Academic transcripts commonly feature grading scale legends, as well as an explanation of the credit system.

Source:

https://wenr.wes.org/2018/10/education-in-south-korea

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to South Korea.

SOUTH KOREA

2018 PISA SCORE
519.7

2015 PISA SCORE
519

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Taiwan

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:45:23 GMT

OVERVIEW OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

The Ministry of Education (MoE) is responsible for setting and maintaining education policies and managing public institutions of education throughout Taiwan. The education system comprises:

Basic education:
Elementary education (six years)
Junior high school education (three years)
Senior secondary education (three years of either senior vocational schools or senior high schools)
Higher education institutions, including colleges, universities, institutes of technology, and graduate schools and postgraduate programs

The official language of instruction is Mandarin Chinese, and the academic year runs from September to June. The literacy rate among Taiwanese ages 15 and above was 98.5 percent as of 2014.

Students graduating from the Taiwanese education system do so with some of the highest scores in the world on comparative international tests, especially in more technical fields such as mathematics and science. However, the system has been routinely criticized for too great a focus on memorization (not atypical for this region of the world), and for producing graduates lacking the creativity of those coming from systems with more generalist, less exam-focused, curricular. In Taiwan, policymakers have attempted to address this perceived shortcoming through a series of ongoing educational reforms.

REFORMS AT THE BASIC AND SECONDARY LEVELS

Until recently, compulsory education in Taiwan lasted only nine years (six years of elementary education and three years of junior high).

As of 2014, the ministry implemented reforms that added three years of compulsory senior secondary education to the curriculum. Among other goals, the transition to the 12-year system sought to address long-standing criticisms of the previous system. Per the Center on International Education Benchmarking , the reforms:

Created ‘exam free’ pathways to upper secondary school
Decentralized an overly restrictive curriculum
Offered high-quality early childhood education to all students
Subsidized students from disadvantaged homes, and strengthened supports for disadvantaged students
Improved vocational education and training (VET) programs
Made arts education available to all students
Promoted e-learning

(Additional information about primary and secondary education in Taiwan, as well as sample credentials, are available later in this article.)

HIGHER EDUCATION: MASSIFICATION, OVER-CAPACITY, AND CONTRACTION

Over the last 30 years, Taiwan’s higher education system has undergone rapid massification, transforming from an elite system to a universal one. More than 5 million Taiwanese now hold post-secondary degrees; an estimated 1.3 million have graduate degrees, up from 570,000 in 2005. Rapid growth has strained both the higher education sector and Taiwan’s economy, with highly educated graduates flooding an island labor market that is not able to absorb them.

Growth began in the mid-1980s, and accelerated in 1996, when the Taiwanese government sanctioned the creation of new private higher education institutions and new players flooded the sector. It accelerated when president Chen Shui-bian (who served from 2000-2008) sought to fulfill his campaign promise of a “university in every county.” Between 1984 and 2014, the total number of higher education institutions (HEIs) in Taiwan jumped from 105 to 159 – a growth rate of 66 percent.

In the face of low birth rates and declining demand, Taiwan’s Ministry of Education announced plans to merge some universities beginning in 2015. According to the Taipei Times , the “ministry estimated that eight to 12 of the 51 public universities in the nation, and 20 to 40 of the 101 private universities” would merge or close by 2023. The plan is a response to the population decline, as well as to overarching concerns about both the quality and sustainability of the sector.

Population decline poses an ongoing challenge for Taiwan’s higher education sector, and has implications for both inbound and outbound mobility. The Ministry of Education has predicted that the numbers of enrolled students will “drop by a third by 2023.” Recent articles also note other difficulties that the Taiwanese higher education sector has faced in remaining competitive in a globalized education market, not least in terms of governmental budget allocations . The government allotment for education in Taiwan represents less than one-quarter of the country’s budget, with only one-third of that going to higher education. That money is then allocated to higher education institutions across the country, making it difficult for universities to compete for and keep scholars and staff who have more lucrative opportunities in other countries.

Recent rankings have also hurt Taiwanese institutions. Taiwan’s top university, National Taiwan University, recently suffered a major fall in its presence on the Times Higher Education World University Rankings list. On the 2014-2015 list, the university’s rank fell drastically from #51 down to #155. On this year’s list, the university has not improved and is ranked at #167.

Ongoing mergers pose additional challenges. One proposed merger between National Tsing Hua and National Hsingchu Normal, for instance, has raised concerns that National Tsing Hua University’s quality and reputation will suffer. Students have also held protests regarding the perceived “hasty planning and a lack of transparency in the decision-making process.”

For two years in the late 1980s, before China emerged as the globally dominant supplier of international students, Taiwan was the leading sender of students to the United States. The number of Taiwanese students on U.S. campuses peaked 1993/94 at some 37,581. It has been declining ever since.

In the 2014-2015 academic year, Taiwan sent 20,993 students to the U.S., making it “ seventh leading place of origin ” for U.S.-enrolled international students. (In 2013-2014, it held the sixth spot on the list.) Roughly three-quarters of Taiwanese students in the U.S. enroll in higher education; 28.8 percent pursue undergraduate studies; and 45.8 percent enroll on graduate programs. The remaining 25.4 percent enroll in optional practical training programs and other educational programs.

The 2014-2015 academic year represents the eighth consecutive year of declining U.S. enrollments of Taiwanese students — but other regions around the globe have seen growth. For instance, in 2012/13, even as Taiwanese enrollments dropped in the U.S, the Ministry of Education reported a slight uptick in outbound student mobility elsewhere. In 2013, the U.K. saw a spike in enrollments, with some 16,000 Taiwanese studying in the U.K. – a substantial leap over the 4,600 the previous year. China’s vice minister of education, Chen Te-hua, attributed the spike to active recruitment by U.K. institutions . In 2014, Australia saw its total number of Taiwanese enrollments rise to 9,998, a 24.3 percent increase over the prior year’s tally of 7,200.

More recently, Taiwan has also focused inbound mobility among international student from other nations. In 2014, for instance, Taiwan’s government established a 2020 goal of 150,000 international higher education enrollments. Taiwan has seen results from these international recruitment efforts, with an increase of 17.7 percent in its numbers of foreign students between 2014 and 2015. The current international student total of 110,000 is primarily comprised of students from mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Malaysia.

TAIWAN’S EDUCATION SYSTEM IN BRIEF

Preschool

Preschool education is not part of Taiwan’s compulsory education system; it is, however, supported by the government, which provides assistance to financially disadvantaged families to enroll their children. In 2012, the Early Childhood Education and Care Act consolidated the education and care of young children ages 2-6 under a single administrative system.

Private preschools are not sanctioned by the government, but many exist. A number of private preschool chains operate under franchise arrangements throughout the country, offering accelerated courses to capitalize on public demand for academic achievement. Many offer English immersion programs.

Primary Education

Compulsory education begins at the primary level, at age six. It spans grades 1 through 6. Primary subjects include: Mandarin, mathematics, science, English (typically beginning in Grade 5), native languages, social studies, homeland education, music, and art.

Students graduate from primary school with a primary school diploma. They are not required to take a test to enter junior high school.

Junior High School

Junior high school lasts three years, from grades 7 through 9.

Junior high students may pursue either an academic or vocational track. Upon graduation from grade 9, students continue on to senior high school. Those on the academic track must take an exam to obtain placement in high school. (Reforms have sought to mitigate the pressure imposed by a notoriously difficult high school entrance exam; more on this below.)

Vocational students continue on to more senior levels without testing.

Subjects covered in the academic track include: Literature; mathematics; English; science & technology (biology, chemistry, physics & earth sciences and technology); social studies; home economics & crafts; art; physical education. At the end of junior high, students on this track participate in a nationwide, two-day exam that helps to determine where they attend high school.

In 2015, the MoE began requiring senior high schools to admit at least 50 percent of students based on results of the exam, which is called the Comprehensive Assessment Program. (Prior to the reform, 61 percent of Taiwanese junior high students did not earn high enough scores to obtain placement in high school.) Under the reformed system, top scorers have the opportunity to take assessments offered by certain high schools that offer specialized programs, typically in either music or science.

Subjects covered on the vocational track are governed by a technical curriculum called the Practical Technical Program. The curriculum aligns with the academic track until the third year of junior high, when technical training is introduced. Students on the vocational track can attend senior vocational school without any additional entry requirements. They are not required to study English, mathematics or science.

Senior High School

Three years of senior high school are now mandatory for Taiwanese students. Senior high school extends from grades 10 through 12. Like junior high, it includes either an academic track or a vocational track. Some students may opt to pursue alternative secondary education options called bi-lateral high schools, comprehensive junior-senior high schools, or junior colleges. These options are outlined at the end of this section.

Academic senior high schools prepare students for higher education. Much of the focus is on preparing for rigorous college entry exams. Senior high schools also encourage participation in extra-curricular activities such as student societies, non-governmental organizations, and international competitions, which also influence admissions into higher education. (Admission to the most competitive universities was once governed entirely by performance on standardized tests, but now depends in part on involvement in such activities. University admission requirements are discussed in greater detail below.)
In grades 10 and 11, all students on the academic track pursue a similar curriculum, which includes both electives and core subjects. These core subjects are: Chinese, English, civics, the philosophy of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen , history, geography, mathematics, basic science, physics, chemistry, biology, earth science, physical education, music, fine arts, industrial arts, home economics, and military training.
In grade 12, students choose a specialization in either humanities/social sciences, or engineering/natural science.

Students who successfully graduate from academic high schools are awarded a Senior High School Leaving Certificate (Diploma).

Secondary vocational schools offer pathways to either employment or additional education. Incoming students typically choose an area of specialization, such as electrical or civil engineering, computer science or business. The curricula typically involve general education subjects, applicable technical and vocational subjects, electives, and group activities. Students graduate with 162 credits and the Senior Vocational School Certificate of Graduation (Diploma). Graduates of three-year vocational programs can choose to take the national university entrance exams and go on to earn a four-year undergraduate degree. Senior vocational schools provide basic technical skills in industry, technology, commerce, marine products, agriculture, nursing and midwifery, home economics, opera and the arts.

Alternative Pathways

Comprehensive Secondary Education Options offer students’ alternative pathways through the final years of mandatory schooling. These include:

Bilateral high schools: These schools offer students the option of pursuing both technical/vocational and academic streams of education for the entirety of their three-years at the secondary level.
Comprehensive junior-senior schools: These schools allow students to complete both junior- and senior-high education at the same institution, without sitting for examinations between cycles. The curriculum includes Chinese, foreign languages, mathematics, natural science, social sciences, art, physical education, business studies, data processing, home economics, and computer studies. The first year of the senior program is purely academic. In the second year, students can specialize in a vocational field and also continue to pursue an academic education. Students receive a diploma, which does not indicate that they have studied at a comprehensive junior-senior school. Instead it documents the subjects studied and any credits obtained for vocational education. This allows students to pursue any form of tertiary education or employment.
Junior Colleges: Junior colleges mid-level technical and managerial skills. In addition to a two-year track available to high school graduates, they provide a five-year programs open to junior high school students who pass a national examination. The first three years are considered senior secondary, and the last two years are post-secondary. The first three years of the curriculum parallel those of vocational schools at the secondary level. The final two include more advanced materials. Students graduate with the equivalent of an associate’s degree and are ready to enter the workforce. Some students may choose to continue their studies at a two-year technical institute. Some may opt to transfer into a four-year university. The two-year pathway is described below.)

Higher Education

University Admission

Prior to reforms in 2001, admission to tertiary studies was based exclusively on the Joint University Entrance Examination (JUEE). In 2002, the introduction of a multi-channel admission process sought to deemphasize JUEE performance as the sole criteria for admissions to colleges and universities. Under the current system, all students seeking admission to colleges and universities sit for one or both of the following exams .

The Subject Competency Test, which includes several 100-minute exams in subjects covered by the general academic senior curriculum. These include Chinese, English, math, and natural and social sciences. Subject competency tests are taken during the last semester of senior school studies.
The Designated Subject(s) Examination, which is based on the JUEE and aims to test depth of knowledge in certain specialties (1-3 subjects). This exam is typically taken in July.

The multi-channel structure includes several routes for admission:

Performance-based, as determined by a combination of results on both Subject Competency Tests and the Designated Subject(s) Examination.
Recommendation- and performance-based. In this scenario, high schools recommend students to one university faculty of the students’ choice. Students then sit for the Subject Competency Test. Faculty select students based on their test results, and, in some cases, an interview or additional assessments.
Self-selection. Students may also apply to specific faculties independently of their high schools. The process for the recommendation- and performance-based pathway (as described above) applies.

Technical and Vocational Higher Education

Technical and vocational programs are offered at community colleges, junior colleges, and institutes of technology. The Department of Technological and Vocational Education in the Ministry of Education is responsible for administering technical and vocational education at both the senior-secondary level, and for post-secondary education.

Community colleges are a relatively new phenomenon in Taiwan. Taiwan’s first community college – Taipei Wenshan Community College – was established in 1998. The goal of community colleges is to expand access to tertiary studies to anyone and everyone, including adults with limited secondary qualifications, and admission is essentially open. County and municipal authorities manage the colleges and handle funding, supply of teachers, curriculum and enrollments.
Junior colleges: At the post-secondary level, junior colleges offer two-year programs that train students for positions as mid-level technicians and managers. (They also offer five-year programs, as described above, that are open to qualified junior high graduates.) Subjects covered include industry, commerce, medicine, marine resources, languages, home economics, tourism and hospitality. Students graduate with a Certificate of Graduation or Diploma comparable to a U.S. associate degree. Students who complete a two-year junior college program may also opt to transfer to the last two years of an undergraduate program in the same or similar field.
Some opt to pursue further education at institutes of technology, or universities of technology.
Others opt to take a transfer exam to enter regular colleges and universities. They must transfer 80 credits from junior college and earn 72 more for the bachelor’s degree.
National institutes of technology offer two-year programs for graduates from junior colleges and four-year bachelor degree programs. Four-year programs are typically for senior high and vocational school graduates and offer in-depth job and vocational training. Institutes of technology also offer graduate-level programs. All national institutes of technology are public. Some private four-year institutes have also entered the space and offer bachelor and graduate degrees.

Academic Education – Undergraduate

Bachelors’ degrees are typically completed within four years. Students may be granted extensions of up to two years to fulfill their requirements. Bachelors’ degrees are offered by:

universities
four-year colleges
institutes of technology
universities of technology

The program of study for a bachelor’s degree is structured much like it is in the United States, with the first two years constituting general education and an introduction to subjects in a student’s expected area of specialization. The last two years are typically reserved for more advanced coursework in the student’s area of specialization. A minimum of 128 credits is the minimum required to graduate, although most programs require between 132 and 175 credits.

Some specialized undergraduate programs require additional credits and time to complete.

Bachelor of Fine Arts degrees can take between four and five years to earn.
Dentistry programs are six years in length.
Medical degrees require between seven and eight years of study.
Architecture and veterinary science degrees typically take five years.
Like medicine, law is an undergraduate degree. The program typically lasts four years.

Academic Education – Graduate

Master’s degree programs require one to four years of study, although the standard is two years. Typically, programs require a mix of coursework, 24 credit hours, examinations, and a thesis. Students take core and elective courses, the exact mix of which will vary depending on the discipline. Students must also meet a minimum knowledge requirement in English and a second foreign language.

Entrance to doctoral programs is typically based on a master’s degree, though some programs admit bachelor’s degree holders. Doctoral programs last two to seven years, depending on the admission requirement. They include a period of a full-time course load, and an additional research period, which culminates in a thesis.

Teacher Education

Qualified teachers at the pre-school, primary and secondary-level are required to hold a four-year teacher education degree. These programs are offered at both public and private institutions. Pre-school and primary teachers are typically instructed at teacher’s colleges, while secondary school teachers are trained at universities.

Teacher-training programs are typically four-year and full-time. They yield between 128 and 148 credits and are followed by a six-month internship. After completing the internship, graduates are awarded the Qualified Teacher Certificate. In order to be recognized, they must sit for the Ministry of Education’s Teacher Qualification Exam.

The program of study at teacher training programs typically includes general education courses, pedagogical study, and classes pertinent to subject specializations.

Students can also take a two-year teaching program at a teachers’ college if they have a two-year junior college teaching qualification.

Sources:

https://www.taiwan.gov.tw/content_9.php

https://wenr.wes.org/2016/06/education-in-taiwan

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Taiwan.

TAIWAN

2018 PISA SCORE
516.7

2015 PISA SCORE
523.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Singapore

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:42:32 GMT

Education in Singapore has been receiving a lot of praise. When Singapore gained independence from the British, it was a low skill labor-driven market. However, over a period of 50 years, the government managed to create an incredibly advanced education system, where graduates went on into highly skilled jobs. How did this happen?

A Success Story: Education in Singapore

In 2015, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) rated Singapore as having the best education system in the world. OECD director Andreas Schleicher says that students in Singapore are especially proficient in math and the sciences. In English, the average Singaporean 15-year-old student is 10 months ahead of students in western countries and is 20 months ahead in math. Singaporean students also score among the best in the world on international exams.

Education in Singapore is superior because the classes are focused on teaching the students specific problem solving skills and subjects. The classroom is highly scripted and the curriculum is focused on teaching students practical skills that will help them solve problems in the real world. Exams are extremely important and classes are tightly oriented around them.

Authorities in Singapore are also constantly trying to reevaluate and improve the education system.

Recently, many students have reported rising levels of overstress and psychological problems brought on by academic rigor. In response, Singapore has stopped listing the top-scoring student on the national exam in order to ease some of the pressure students may feel. The country has also incorporated a strategy called Teach Less, Learn More, which encourages teachers to focus on the quality of education, not the quantity.

Another reason the education in Singapore is so excellent is simply the Singaporean culture. Parents play a crucial role in their child’s education. The “ talent myth ,” which states that some kids are naturally smarter than others, is non-existent in Singapore. A local newspaper, The Straits, reported that 70 percent of parents sign their children up for extra classes outside of their regular school hours. In local bookstores, over half of the store is dedicated to educational material.

The education system in Singapore is, in many ways, superior to the education system in the Western world. This is largely due to the country’s culture and first-rate educational leadership. Singapore has a lot to teach the rest of the world; if other countries would adopt some of Singapore’s strategies, there would surely be improvement in education around the globe.

– Bruce Edwin Ayres Truax

One important decision, if you’re moving to Singapore with family, is how to ensure your children have the best possible education. Luckily, you're headed to the right place, as students in Singapore attained the highest marks in the PISA student assessments in 2016, across all subjects tested. Of course, the standard and levels of attainment vary across different schools, but you won't struggle to find a great school for your children in Singapore.

If you’re considering your options, you can compare the standard of education in Singapore with that available in your home country, with the PISA assessment framework from the OECD.

Whether you’ve already got your Singaporean work visa , and have your move fully planned - or are just starting to think about life overseas, it helps to know a little about the education options in Singapore.

Here's a quick guide to get you started.

The Singapore education system

Pre-school is offered from age three, in Singapore, with primary schooling from the age of around seven. After primary school, children move onto secondary school, which runs for students aged from around 12, to 16 or 17. To go to university, teenagers must attend a two or three year preparation course, which is optional, with places awarded on merit. Schooling in Singapore is structured in a fairly complex way, with many different school types, although the Ministry of Education does provide a handy road map to explain your options.

In the Singaporean system, English is the language of instruction for most subjects, although all students from a very early age will also study their ‘mother tongue’ language, and often other languages which are commonly used in the region.

Pre-School

Full details of how to enrol your children in Singaporean school at any age, is available on the Ministry of Education website. Places are available for children aged between around three and six, with fees often payable. Pre-schools are operated by community groups and charities as well as independent companies.

The cost of pre-school varies enormously, and the best schools are oversubscribed. To give an example, the monthly fee for the government run MOE kindergarten is SGD 320 for a Singapore Permanent Resident. Some preschools offer financial assistance with fees for families who need it.

Primary School

From the age of six it’s compulsory to attend primary school in Singapore. This stage of schooling is provided free of charge, and there are penalties for parents who don't comply. If you want to homeschool your child, or have them attend a religious institution which isn't managed by the ministry of education, you have to apply for permission to do so from the authorities.

Primary school lasts for sixth grades, split into a four year foundation period, and two years of ‘orientation’ to prepare children for secondary education. The main aim of the primary years is to grasp English language, the local mother tongue, and math. Students can select subjects which play to their strengths beyond these core areas.

Secondary School

The compulsory stage of secondary education lasts for four or five years. At the end of this period, all students take an exam, and can then choose to continue to pre-university education if they score well. Pre-university education consists of a two or three year course which is specifically tailored to students who wish to attend university. Places are awarded on merit and are fiercely competitive in the best institutions.

The alternative is to continue with ‘post-secondary’ education at a technical institute or polytechnic, which is aimed at developing more vocational skills. There’s a wide range of institution types, which students can choose, all handily described on the Ministry of Education website.

What’s the typical school calendar and hours?

The school year in the Singaporean state system is arranged into semesters. The first semester typically runs from January through to May, with a vacation to follow. Then from July you have the second semester, which runs until a break in November and December. There’s also a shorter break in the middle of each semester.

It’s worth noting that this calendar applies to state schools only - in private and international schools the western standard calendar, with a long summer break and several weeks vacation at Christmas, is far more likely to be adopted.

What’s the cost of education?

Although education in Singapore is free, all families must pay small ‘miscellaneous’ fees, which are explained by the Ministry of Education. These fees are fairly small for public schools, but don't necessarily cover additional costs for things like uniforms, transport and school materials. Independent schools, even if part government funded, can charge fees beyond the small amounts seen in the public school system. If you do not choose the state system and decide to find a fully private or international school, the costs are higher.

Singapore has a huge range of international schools, teaching in English and other major world languages. Schools might use the International Baccalaureate syllabus, or a variant of another national curriculum such as the American core or Australian standard curriculum. International schools are generally of a high standard, and therefore typically competitive, with testing and interviews to secure admission. You can expect the fees to vary widely depending on the specific school and the programme they offer. Fees of anything from USD 15,000 to USD 30,000 a year aren't uncommon, with extras such as registration fees, deposits and technology costs added on top.

Singapore is a fantastic place for expats, and the schooling there is truly world class. However, whichever education route you decide is best for your family, there will be costs involved, and you don’t want to pay more than you have to.

Sources:

https://borgenproject.org/why-education-in-singapore-is-so-good/

https://wise.com/gb/blog/singaporean-education-overview

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Singapore.

SINGAPORE

2018 PISA SCORE
556.3

2015 PISA SCORE
551.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

Japan

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:39:40 GMT

10 Facts About Education in Japan

High school dropout rate: Japan’s high school dropout rate is at a low 1.27%. In contrast, the average high school dropout rate in the U.S. is at 4.7%.
Equality in education: Japan ranks highly in providing equal educational opportunities for students, regardless of socioeconomic status. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Japan ranks as one of the highest in education equity. In Japan, only nine percent of the variation in student performance results from students’ socioeconomic background. In comparison, the average variation in the OECD is 14%, while the average variation in the U.S. is 17%.
Teacher mobility: Japan assigns teachers to schools in a different way than most education systems. Unlike most countries, individual schools do not have the power to hire teachers. Instead, prefectures assign teachers to the schools and students who need them most. At the beginning of teachers’ careers, they move schools every three years. This helps teachers work in various environments instead of staying in one socioeconomic group of schools. As teachers advance in their careers, they move around less.
Frugal spending: Japan does not spend a lot of money on its education system, with the Japanese government investing 3.3% of its GDP on education. This is over one percentage point less than other developed countries and is a result of Japan’s frugal spending. For example, the Japanese government invests in simple school buildings, rather than decorative ones. The country also requires paperback textbooks and fewer on-campus administrators. Finally, students and faculty take care of cleaning the school, resulting in no need for janitors.
Teaching entrance exams: The teaching entrance exam in Japan is extremely difficult. It is of similar difficulty to the U.S. bar exam. Passing the exam results in job security until the age of 60, a stable salary and a guaranteed pension.
Personal energy: Japanese education requires that teachers put in a great amount of personal energy. More common than not, many teachers work 12 or 13 hours a day. Sometimes teachers even work until nine at night.
Emphasis on problem-solving: Teachers focus on teaching students how to think. Unlike some other countries that lean towards teaching students exactly what will be on standardized tests, Japan focuses on teaching students how to problem-solve. By emphasizing critical thinking, Japanese students are better able to solve problems they have never seen before on tests.
Teacher collaboration: Japanese education highlights pedagogy development. Teachers design new lessons, and then present those to fellow educators in order to receive feedback. Teachers also work to identify school-wide problems and band together to find solutions. The education system constantly encourages teachers to think of new ways to better education in Japan and engage students.
Grade progression: Japanese students cannot be held back. Every student can progress to the next grade regardless of their attendance or grades. The only test scores that truly matter are the high school and university entrance exams. Despite this seemingly unregulated structure, Japan’s high school graduation rate is 96.7%, while the U.S. (where attendance and good grades are necessary to proceed to the next grade) has a graduation rate of 83%.
Traditional teaching methods: Despite being one of the most progressive countries in science and technology, Japan does not use much technology in schools. Many schools prefer pen and paper. To save money, schools use electric fans instead of air conditioning and kerosene heaters instead of central heating. However, technology is now slowly being introduced into classrooms with more use of the internet and computers for assignments.

Through these methods, Japan has established that teaching and schooling are highly regarded aspects of society. By looking at what Japan has done, other countries might be able to learn and adapt to this minimalistic, equitable education model. – Emily Joy Oomen

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

Responsibility for educational administration and policy development is divided between government authorities at three levels: national, prefectural, and municipal. At the national level, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), or Monbu-kagaku-shō, is responsible for all stages of the education system, from early childhood education to graduate studies and continuing, or lifelong, learning. MEXT ensures that education in Japan meets the standards set by the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education which stipulates that the country provide an education to all its citizens “that values the dignity of the individual, that endeavors to cultivate a people rich in humanity and creativity who long for truth and justice and who honor the public spirit, that passes on traditions, and that aims to create a new culture.”

To fulfill that mandate, MEXT sets and enforces national standards for teacher certification qualifications, school organization, and education facilities, among others. It provides a significant portion of the funds for public schools, universities, research institutions, and, under certain circumstances, issues grants to private academic institutions. MEXT is also typically responsible for the development of national education policies, although in recent decades prime ministers have often convened ad hoc councils to determine education policy.

At the elementary and secondary levels, MEXT develops national curriculum standards or guidelines (gakushū shidō yōryō) which contain the “ basic outlines of each subject taught in Japanese schools and the objectives and content of teaching in each grade.” Typically, private educational publishers develop and print textbooks following these guidelines. Elementary and secondary schools can only use textbooks reviewed and approved by MEXT, which provides textbooks to students free of charge.

Although MEXT revises the curriculum guidelines roughly once every 10 years, their overall structure and objectives have remained more or less the same since 1886. Since then, curriculum guidelines have emphasized standardization, objectivity, and neutrality to avoid divisive political, factional, and religious issues.

While this emphasis may lead one to assume that the national government strictly limits and controls educational content and teaching methods, in theory, these guidelines are only intended to establish nationally uniform standards of education, allowing students throughout the country access to an equal education.

The system is designed to give teachers the freedom to develop individualized lesson plans and tests. Still, comparisons with other OECD countries suggest that Japanese teachers have limited control over classroom instruction and curriculum. Among the recent concerns cited as limiting the freedom of Japanese teachers is the 2007 introduction of a national academic achievement test. Observers note that in order to reach achievement test targets, local schools and educational authorities have tightened control over teaching methods and educational content.

At the prefectural and municipal levels, the external influences mentioned in the introduction are readily apparent. In the post-World War II era, democratization and the decentralization of education were core issues of educational reform, spurring the Japanese government to adopt the system of boards of education common in the U.S.

Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each of which is composed of smaller municipalities, such as cities, towns, and villages. Boards of education, representative councils responsible for the supervision of education at the elementary and secondary levels, exist at both the prefectural and municipal levels. At the prefectural level , governors appoint members to five-member boards of education for terms of four years.

Prefectural boards are responsible for appointing teachers and partially funding municipal operations and payrolls, including funding for two-thirds of teachers’ salaries, with the remaining third financed by the national government. At the municipal level, members are appointed by local mayors. Municipal boards are responsible for the supervision of day-to-day operational tasks at elementary and junior high schools, the management and professional development of teachers, and the selection of MEXT-approved school materials.

A 2015 reform of the board of education system—the first such reform in nearly 60 years—expanded the control of local chief executives, such as governors or mayors, over educational administration and planning, and reduced the role of boards of education. Authority to appoint the superintendent, the most powerful local educational authority, was transferred from the board of education to the local chief executives. The reform also increased their authority to determine local policy goals—it transferred authority to establish the local education policy charter to chief executives, reducing boards of education to an advisory role. Reformers hope the changes will lead to improvements in a system long criticized for its lack of transparency, accountability, and clearly defined roles and responsibilities.

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Traditionally, two principal forms of early childhood education (ECE) have existed in Japan: kindergarten (yōchien) and day care (hoikuen). Under the jurisdiction of MEXT, yōchien is a non-compulsory stage of the country’s educational system, coming immediately before elementary school, providing preschool education to children from the ages of three to six.

Children typically attend yōchien for around four hours each day. As at other levels of Japan’s basic education system, MEXT develops and publishes curriculum standards for kindergartens, which must meet criteria necessary for the curriculum to realize the nation’s educational goals. The latest, issued in 2017 , seeks to foster a “zest for living,” a goal pursued at all levels of the educational system, and lay the groundwork for learning at the elementary level and beyond.

Administered by a different ministry, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare , hoikuen exists outside the Japanese educational system. Its principal function is to provide basic childcare services for children age one to six while their parents are at work. Typically lasting for eight hours, or the length of a typical working day, hoikuen often include some educational elements like reading and math.

Both yōchien and hoikuen centers can be owned and operated by public or private bodies, such as local municipalities, educational corporations, or non-profit organizations. However, the majority of students enroll at private institutions, some of which are highly selective and expensive. Many parents believe that enrolling their children in these highly selective institutions increases their children’s chances of being admitted to more selective institutions later in their educational career. In fact, some yōchien and hoikuen centers even prepare students for admissions tests at private elementary schools.

With more and more Japanese mothers entering the workforce, yōchien kindergarten programs, which have traditionally provided educational supervision for only part of the day, have in recent years faced

difficulty maintaining enrollment numbers. For the same reason, the demand for full-day hoikuen services has been on the rise. Historically, there have been long, persistent waitlists for parents hoping to enroll their children in hoikuen centers.

Given the clear demand for full-day childcare services, more and more yōchien have begun to adopt the day care elements more typical of hoikuen centers. For example, some yōchien have begun to offer extended hours to meet the demands of working parents, not ending their classes until the end of the workday. Some local governments have also started combining yōchien and hoikuen centers and mandating enrollment for all children prior to elementary school. The national government has even introduced measures merging childcare and early childhood education services into a single facility known as nintei-kodomoen. However, because of conflicting ministerial jurisdictions, reform efforts have often been stymied by administrative complications and are yet to achieve widespread success.

Still, early efforts at reform, combined with declining birthrates, have proved effective in reducing hoikuen waitlists. In 2019, waitlists for day care facilities reached an all-time low, with just under 17,000 children waiting to enter day care, a decrease of more than 3,000 children from the previous year.

ELEMENTARY AND LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION

Elementary education marks the beginning of compulsory education for all Japanese children, lasting six years and spanning grades one to six. Children enter elementary education provided they reach age six as of April 1.

The elementary curriculum emphasizes both intellectual and moral development. All students must take certain compulsory subjects , like Japanese language, mathematics, science, social studies, music, crafts, home economics, living environment studies, and physical education. For public school students in grades five and six, English has been a compulsory subject since 2011. Since 2020 , English has been mandatory starting in third grade. Moral development is promoted through a moral education course and informal learning experiences designed to inculcate respect for society and the environment. The importance of moral education—long a taboo subject given its association with the nationalistic excesses of Imperial Japan—to Japan’s educational policies has increased over the past few decades. In recent years, the reintroduction of moral education as a formal course was spurred by reports of rampant student truancy, bullying, and school violence.

Classes remain large by international and OECD standards , despite efforts by MEXT to improve student-teacher ratios and recruit additional instructors. In 2011, MEXT limited first grade classes to 35 , down from 40, although intentions to extend similar limitations to other grades subsequently failed. Nearly all the country’s elementary schools, known as shōgakkō, are public. Enrollment at public elementary schools is free.

Students completing the elementary education cycle are awarded the Elementary School Certificate of Graduation (shogakko sotsugyo shosho) and automatically accepted into public junior high school.

Lower secondary education, the final stage of compulsory education, lasts three years, comprising grades six to nine. Instruction is conducted at junior high schools, or chūgakkō, 90 percent of which are public and tuition-free. Some municipalities have established nine-year unified compulsory education schools which combine primary and lower secondary education. Students hoping to enroll in private junior high schools or national junior high schools affiliated with national universities are required to sit for admissions examinations administered by the institution.

All public junior high schools follow a standard national curriculum which comprises the compulsory subjects previously taught at the elementary level. In addition to compulsory subjects, students can also choose from a wide range of electives and extracurricular activities in fields such as fine arts, foreign languages, physical health and education, and music.

Lower secondary education is a critical stage in a typical student’s educational journey, as grades partially determine whether a student will be accepted into a good senior high school, and consequently, into a top university. It also culminates in the first significant stage of what is colloquially referred to as “ examination hell ,” a series of rigorous and highly consequential entrance examinations that are required for admission to senior high schools and universities. Many students in the final two years of junior high school attend Juku, or cram schools, in preparation for the competitive senior high school admissions examinations.

Students completing junior high school are awarded the Lower Secondary School Leaving Certificate and are eligible to sit for senior high school admissions examinations.

Yutori Kyōiku: Compulsory Education Reform

Since the 1990s, the direction that education reform in Japan should take has been a hotly debated topic. Experts have long criticized Japanese education for its “strict management” which “places excessive emphasis on standardization and student behavioral control.” They have also voiced concerns about the “the widespread practices of rote memorization and ‘cramming’ of knowledge,” which have been accused of “depriving pupils of opportunities to develop their intellectual curiosity and creativity.” Finally, experts allege that the “intense competition among students vying for admission to prestigious senior high schools and universities has caused tremendous psychological pressure for these students and their parents.”

To address these concerns, the government issued national curriculum standards in 2002 that put in place a concept known as yutori kyōiku, which roughly translates as “relaxed education.” The updated guidelines brought about significant changes, reducing the length of the school week from six to five days and cutting curriculum content by 30 percent. The guidelines also mandated the creation of a new “Integrated Studies” course, which granted schools and municipalities discretion to create their own courses to provide students with a “ learning space outside the traditional bounds of the curriculum that would not be closely associated with entrance tests or tightly defined learning outcomes.”

But a year after the new curriculum guidelines were introduced, yutori kyōiku policies faced intense criticism. The disappointing results of Japanese students in the OECD’s 2003 PISA study shocked the nation. In the study, the average performance of Japanese 15-year-olds dropped from first to sixth rank in mathematics and from eighth to 14 ^th in reading. In just three years, mean performance had dropped from 557 to 543 in mathematics, from 522 to 498 in reading literacy, and from 550 to 548 in science.

Experts also highlighted the results of the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), an assessment that measures U.S. eighth grade student performance comparatively with that of other secondary students around the globe, as a sign of the country’s declining educational quality. While Japanese students again performed well overall, outperforming the global average in mathematics, when compared with other high-performing Asian countries, Japan’s performance was disappointing. Between 31 percent and 44 percent of students from Singapore, South Korea, and Hong Kong scored at the advanced benchmark for math, compared with just 24 percent of Japanese students. Many Japanese scholars attributed the Japanese students’ relatively poor performance in these international education assessments to the more relaxed nature of the yutori kyōiku reforms.

Public concern over declining performance prompted the Japanese government to review the yutori kyōiku reforms. What followed were a number of reforms aimed at maintaining some of the benefits of the educational reforms of the 1990s and early 2000s while increasing the academic rigor of Japanese compulsory education. MEXT issued new curriculum standards in 2008 and 2009 which increased academic lesson hours while reducing Integrated Study and elective hours, and a number of municipalities, supported by MEXT, reintroduced Saturday classes. MEXT also introduced mandatory foreign language courses to the elementary school curriculum, as mentioned above. More recently, reform in Japan has avoided the yutori kyōiku concept, instead promoting “ Active Learning ” with the aim of developing “students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes compatible with the new visions of learning for a knowledge-based society in the twenty-first century.”

UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION

After nine years of compulsory education, students have the option of enrolling in senior high schools (kōtō-gakkō), widely regarded as the most strenuous stage of Japanese education. Despite being a non-compulsory level of education, the transition rate from junior to senior high school is extremely high, in part due to the integral role a student’s performance in senior high school plays in determining future access to higher education and employment. Per MEXT , as many as 98 percent of Japanese junior secondary students choose to move on to upper secondary schooling.

Admission to senior high school is typically determined by three criteria: an entrance examination, an interview, and junior high school grades. Of these criteria, the fate of a student’s placement in higher education—and even of their career in the years beyond—is determined most heavily by the entrance examination (kōkō juken). Students take these examinations, which are administered by their senior high school of choice, between January and March. Typically, entrance examinations test a student’s proficiency in the core subjects of Japanese, mathematics, science, social studies, and English.

Students hoping to enroll in public high schools take entrance examinations standardized by the prefectural board of education which has jurisdiction over the school. If students fail the entrance examination for a public school, they will often opt to apply to a private school. Unlike public schools, private senior high schools typically create their own examinations. Although nearly three-quarters of the country’s senior high schools are public, the proportion of private senior high schools has been growing in recent years. Students enrolling in the country’s limited number of unified junior high and senior high schools (chuto-kyoiku-gakko) are spared the entrance examination. Since reforms introduced in 2010 , students have been able to attend public high schools free of charge, while students attending private high schools receive government subsidies.

The employment prospects of students who fail to gain admission to either a public or private senior high school are often grim, with many forced to find work as unskilled blue-collar laborers, an occupational category traditionally thought of as low status. Given the highly competitive nature of senior high school admissions and coursework, it is no surprise that senior high school is perceived as a vehicle toward higher social status. This exclusivity, however, has long raised concerns about equity and access. Since the 1980s, MEXT has attempted to rectify these concerns through a series of reforms, the most significant of which was the introduction of the credit system to senior high schools . In the late 1980s, MEXT implemented the credit system for part-time and distance education learners, allowing them to learn at their own pace and graduate when they completed the required number of credits. In the early 1990s, the credit system was expanded to full-time senior high school students as well.

Senior high school lasts for three years, comprising grades 10 to 12, with students receiving 240 days of instruction each year. Following recent yutori kyōiku-inspired educational reforms, the school week is officially five days long, from Monday to Friday. Still, as mentioned above, workarounds exist, with educational authorities issuing special approvals to public schools to hold Saturday classes, while many less regulated private schools have reintroduced Saturday classes at monthly or bimonthly intervals.

As at the lower secondary level, the senior high school curriculum comprises three years of mathematics, social studies, Japanese, science, and English, with all the students in one grade level studying the same subjects. Electives are also similar to those offered at earlier levels, including physical education, music, art, and moral studies courses. However, the high number of required courses often leaves students with little room to fit in electives or subjects matching their personal interests. Although MEXT has pushed to expand the types of courses taken in high school to promote individuality, purpose, and inspiration, implementation has proved difficult because of a lack of qualified teachers.

Students must obtain a minimum of 74 credits to graduate. Students who graduate are awarded the Senior High School Graduation Certificate (sotsugyo shomeisho) and are eligible to sit for university entrance examinations.

Senior high schools use a numeric grading scale ranging from 1 to 5.

TECHNICAL, PROFESSIONAL, AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Amid Japan’s current economic challenges, technical and vocational institutions have attracted considerable attention from reformers and government planners. Concerns that the education system is “obsolete and dysfunctional, with the curricula lacking relevance to the realities of society and the economy,” has led to calls to expand and strengthen vocational and professional education. A 2017 MEXT white paper, which laid out key priorities in education reform, included a call to strengthen and reform the country’s technical and vocational education.

To meet the challenges of globalization, economic transformation, and declining birthrates, the paper highlighted the importance of diversifying the country’s education system by increasing the availability of vocational schools and junior colleges. That paper followed a 2016 revision to the 1947 School Education Act; the revision urged professional institutions to collaborate with industry leaders to develop curricula that better balance practical and theoretical components.

Government planners are hoping that these efforts will expand and strengthen what is an already diverse landscape of vocational and professional institutions. Japan possesses a wide variety of institutions offering specialized education and professional and technical training to Japanese students at the secondary, post-secondary, and continuing education levels. Given the unique recruitment practices of Japanese employers—discussed further below—these institutions are attracting a growing number of university students who choose to study in a vocational institution either simultaneously or after graduating from university, to increase their employability, a phenomenon known in Japan as “double schooling.”

Specialized Training Colleges (senshu gakku)

First introduced in 1976, specialized training colleges (senshu gakku) offer courses of study aimed at developing skills and competencies that are needed for specific occupations. Three categories of specialized training colleges exist: general, upper secondary, and post-secondary, each maintaining different requirements for admission and offering training programs that vary in content and intensity.

Most specialized training colleges are privately owned and operated. New specialized training colleges must meet minimum quality requirements set by MEXT, after which they can be granted approval to operate by the prefectural government in which they are located.

Specialized Training College, General Course (senshu gakko ippan katei)

The lowest level of specialized training college offers courses in general vocational subjects such as Japanese dressmaking, art, and cooking. MEXT does not set admission requirements for entry to general courses, instead allowing individual institutions to set their own. As of 2017, there were 157 colleges offering general courses to around 29,000 students.

Specialized Training College, Upper Secondary Course (koto-senshu-gakko)

More popular are the specialized training colleges offering courses at the upper secondary level. As of 2017, 424 institutions offered upper secondary courses to around 38,000 students. Admission to courses at this level requires possession of the Lower Secondary School Leaving Certificate. Courses typically last between one and three years. Those completing a course lasting three years or more that meets minimum academic requirements set by MEXT are eligible for enrollment in a university or a professional training college. Students graduating from these courses are awarded a Specialized Training College Upper Secondary Certificate of Graduation.

Professional Training College (senmon gakko)

The highest level of specialized training college is the professional training college, which offers courses at the post-secondary level. Admission is open to graduates of senior high schools, with courses lasting between one and four years. Students who graduate from specialized vocational schools are able to enroll in a traditional four-year university but can also use their degrees directly toward careers in their specialty. Options for specialization are vast but are typically classified into eight fields of study: industry, agriculture, medical care, health, education and social welfare, business practices, apparel and homemaking, and culture and the liberal arts.

Students completing a MEXT-approved course of at least two years and 62 credits (1,700 credit hours) are awarded a diploma (senmonshi). Those completing a MEXT-approved course of at least four years and 124 credits (3,400 credit hours) are awarded the advanced diploma (kodo senmonshi).

With birthrates falling and universities accepting a higher percentage of applicants, professional training colleges have struggled to maintain enrollment levels. Still, as of 2017, 2,817 professional training colleges existed, offering courses to around 660,000 students or around 15 percent to 20 percent of senior high school graduates. To encourage enrollment, some professional training colleges have adopted a dual education approach, organizing class schedules in a manner that allows students to study for a vocational diploma and a university degree simultaneously (the double schooling mentioned above).

Colleges of Technology (kōtō-senmon-gakkō or KOSEN)

Unlike other vocational institutions, colleges of technology, which were introduced in 1961, provide education and training that straddles the secondary and post-secondary levels. Students who are 15 years of age, or those completing junior high school, are able to study in these colleges, which primarily offer courses in engineering, technology, and marine studies. Programs typically last for five years, requiring 167 credits. Students who complete programs from colleges of technology are awarded a title of Associate (jun gakushi).

Colleges of technology are growing in popularity among university graduates who fail to secure employment immediately after graduation.

Professional and Vocational Junior Colleges (tanki daigaku)

A subset of junior colleges, discussed below, professional and vocational junior colleges (PVJC), pursue “teaching and research in highly-specialized fields with the aim to develop practical and applicable abilities needed to take on specialized work.” Programs at PVJCs are two or three years in length, requiring 62 to 93 credits, one-third of which must be earned in “practicum, skills training, or experiment,” including “on-site training conducted off-campus.” Students completing their studies are awarded the associate degree (professional) and are able to transfer to a general university or a professional and vocational university.

Professional and Vocational Universities (senmon shoku daigaku or PVU) and Professional Graduate Schools (senmon shoku daigakuin)

Other HEIs include professional and vocational universities (senmon shoku daigaku, or PVU), which offer courses similar to those offered at PVJCs and award four-year, 124 credit bachelor’s degrees (professional).

Professional Graduate Schools (senmon-shoku-daigakuin), which “specialize in fostering highly-specialized professionals who will be active internationally” and include law schools and schools for teacher education, award graduate professional degrees, such as the Juris Doctor and other professional master’s degrees. Programs range from one to three years in length with widely varying credit requirements. These professional degrees often meet eligibility prerequisites to sit for professional examinations; for example, a Juris Doctor is required to sit for the national bar examination.

Nursing Education

Before sitting for their national licensing examinations, nurses in Japan must complete at least three years of post-secondary education and training. Midwives and public health nurses must study for an additional year in a specialized program. Nursing programs are taught at a variety of institutions; universities, junior colleges, and nursing schools (kangoshi-senmon), which are overseen by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW), offer three-year programs in general nursing and one-year specialized programs in public health or midwifery. Universities are the only institutions authorized to offer four-year nursing programs, which often include a year of specialized training in midwifery or public health and lead to bachelor’s degrees in nursing.

Nursing programs typically follow a standard curriculum set by MEXT and MHLW. Students who successfully complete three years of general nursing education are eligible to sit for the National License Examination for Nursing; a high passing score allows them to begin practicing. After receiving their general nursing license and completing an additional year of specialized training, students can sit for National Public Health and National Midwifery Examinations.

HIGHER EDUCATION

Japan offers a wide and diverse landscape of HEIs that comprises junior colleges, universities, and graduate schools in addition to the post-secondary professional and vocational institutions touched on above. The country has one of the largest higher education sectors in the world, with around 3.9 million students enrolled in post-secondary education in 2018. That same year, a total of 2.9 million students were enrolled in universities, with 2.6 million enrolled in undergraduate programs and 254,000 in graduate programs. Enrollment rates are also high; according to MEXT, in 2017, the percentage of 18-year-olds studying at the post-secondary level was 81 percent, with 53 percent studying at a university, 22 percent at a specialized training college, 4 percent at a junior college, and 1 percent at a college of technology.

Three categories of Japanese universities exist: national universities, established by the national government; public universities, established by prefectures and municipalities; and private universities, established by educational corporations. One noteworthy characteristic concerning the composition of Japanese HEIs is the country’s high proportion of private institutions, which expanded rapidly in response to growing demand for higher education in the postwar economic boom years. In 2018, less than a quarter of Japan’s 782 universities were public or national—with just 86 national and 93 public universities, compared with 603 private universities. That same year, private institutions enrolled nearly four-fifths of all higher education students, giving Japan the seventh-largest private higher education student population in the OECD.

However, despite making up the majority of Japanese HEIs, private universities are often considered less prestigious than their national and public counterparts. Even today, national and public universities typically rank higher on domestic and international league tables and are responsible for the bulk of Japan’s academic research output. Of the 11 universities making up RU11, a consortium of Japan’s top research universities, only two are private, Keio University and Waseda University. Even more prestigious are the National Seven Universities, a group of national universities established and operated by the Empire of Japan until the end of World War II, the oldest and most prestigious of which is the University of Tokyo.

Recent reforms have helped modernize Japan’s highly respected national universities. The National University Corporation (NUC) Act , implemented in 2004, reorganized this HEI category, which had previously been managed directly by MEXT, transforming national universities into public corporations, a move that expanded their autonomy in academic, budgetary, and other matters. The NUC reforms also empowered national university presidents, allowing them to make important organizational, strategic, and academic decisions without statutory or MEXT approval.

Still, despite its size and diversity, higher education in Japan remains more challenged than any other stage of the country’s educational system. Problems include quality concerns, growing inequality, and shrinking enrollment. Japan’s population decline has meant that fewer and fewer students graduate from senior high school and that fewer are eligible to enroll in universities. Although the population of 18-year-olds has remained more or less steady for the past decade, MEXT projects that from 2021 onward, the decline, which was uninterrupted from 1991 to 2009, will begin again. The decline has had and will likely continue to have far-reaching ramifications in the higher education sector. As mentioned above, the decline has also prompted the Japanese government, universities, and higher education associations to look overseas for students to fill empty university seats. It has also driven some universities to ease admissions standards, replacing strenuous entrance examinations with interviews and student essays.

Educators have long been concerned with the quality, rigor, and purpose of education at Japanese universities. In contrast to the rigor of secondary education, university studies are typically considered easy, with students sailing through the first two and a half years before focusing on the job search in their final year and a half. The unique Japanese system of shūshoku katsudō (job hunting), long the country’s predominant recruitment practice, has meant that university education and the job market are more intimately connected in Japan than they are almost anywhere else in the world. Under the system, companies recruit exclusively from among new or soon-to-be university graduates, rarely hiring older job seekers. Once hired, these new university graduates often remain at the same company for life, with pay highly correlated with seniority, a system of employment known as shūshin koyō. As new graduates typically have little to no practical experience, recruiters place enormous emphasis on the prestige of a job seeker’s university and senior high school. Top employers, such as the Japanese government and the country’s largest companies, hire almost exclusively from Japan’s most prestigious universities. Job seekers who do not have a university education, and students attending an overseas university that follows a different academic calendar, face extreme difficulties obtaining employment.

The importance of a university education is reflected in employment rates. According to a 2012 OECD study, the employment rate for both men and women who hold a university education is significantly higher than for those with just an upper secondary education. The study also revealed a large gap in employment between men and women. Among men, 92 percent of those with a university education and 86 percent of those with an upper secondary education were employed, compared with just 68 and 61 percent of women with a university and an upper secondary education, respectively. Gender inequality is a widely recognized issue throughout Japan, not only in the workplace, but also in higher education. In a series of investigations, beginning at Tokyo Medical University in 2018, found that a handful of universities were systematically manipulating their entrance examination scores, lowering the test scores of women to ensure that they made up only a small minority of all admitted students. After the scandal forced Tokyo Medical University to make corrections, more women than men passed the entrance examination.

Japan’s singular reliance on private sources to fund higher education further exacerbates concerns about unequal access to a university education. As students at all universities, whether national, public, or private, pay tuition fees, private sources, such as students and their parents, fund a comparatively large share of Japanese higher education. The share of private expenditure on higher education, reaching nearly 69 percent in 2017, is among the highest in the OECD. Additionally, few scholarships or grants are available to students who need them, and a large proportion of Japanese students take out private or government-sponsored loans to fund their studies, raising concerns about the ability of less well-off individuals to obtain a university education and a comfortable post-graduation career.

Critics have also highlighted a mismatch between the education and skills imparted at the country’s universities and those needed to prosper in the modern world. In response, policymakers in Japan have called for the “internationalization” (kokusaika) of universities to better prepare students to navigate and succeed in an interdependent global economy. In many cases, these internationalization efforts have gone furthest in private universities, while national and public universities have struggled to adapt. In a 2008 survey conducted by MEXT, only 5 percent of faculty members in Japan’s most prestigious public institutions came from overseas.

University Admissions

“Thus there is a general belief that a student’s performance in one crucial examination at about the age of 18 is likely to determine the rest of his life. In other words: the university entrance examination is the primary sorting device for careers in Japanese society. The result is not an aristocracy of birth, but a sort of degree-ocracy.”

Despite the passage of half a century, those words, written in a review of Japan’s national education policies that was published by the OECD in 1971, still ring true today. Attending a prestigious university has a direct impact on one’s employment and life prospects, making the university admissions process one of the most significant stages of Japan’s educational system. While MEXT encourages universities to consider a range of factors when making admissions decisions, such as interviews, essays, and secondary school grades, entrance examinations are far and away the most important factor.

Students with a Senior High School Graduation Certificate who want to enroll at public universities or certain private universities typically take two entrance examinations: the National Center Test for University Admissions (daigaku nyūshi sentā shiken), more often referred to simply as the National Center Test or Center Test; and a university-specific entrance examination. National Center Tests, administered by the National Center for University Entrance Exams, are held annually over two days in January. There are 30 tests total, all multiple-choice, in six subjects: geography and history, civics, the Japanese language, foreign language, science, and mathematics. Students can sit for up to 10 examinations over the two days, typically choosing subjects required by their preferred universities for admission.

Institution-specific examinations at prestigious universities are often even more difficult than the National Center Tests. Students often elect to sit for multiple institution-specific examinations at several universities in case they do not get in to their preferred university. Prior to both examinations, universities distribute booklets to students to help them prepare for the subject examinations.

Criticism and Reform: The Common Test for University Admissions

Many Japanese policy experts have criticized the National Center Test, alleging that the test’s outdated emphasis on rote memorization contributes to a lack of independent and critical thinking in Japanese students. They also contend that the high-stakes nature of the test inflicts significant psychological distress on students and their parents, even going so far as to assert that the test reinforces a centuries-old cultural stigma that associates failure with being ostracized. For example, a large number of students who fail to achieve scores high enough for admission to their preferred university elect to retake the entrance examinations the following year. These students, who made up one-fifth of all students sitting for the National Test in 2011, are known as rōnin, a term that historically referred to wandering samurai stripped of their social status by the loss of their feudal master. Rōnin opting to study in a Juku, or cram school, which students can attend both before or after they sit for an entrance test, are typically relegated to a specific section of the school, segregated from other students. There, they subject themselves to long, grueling hours of study in hopes of raising their test scores high enough to gain admission to the college of their choice.

The test has also been decried for its lack of accessibility. Test prices are high and can cost students up to 18,800 Japanese yen, or around US$180, for just three subjects.[1] Cram schools can cost far more. Yobikō, which like Juku prepare students for entrance examinations, can cost as much as a year of university tuition. These high costs exacerbate economic inequality in an already-stratified Japanese society, stirring up tensions by furthering the impression that only the most socially and financially fit will be admitted to top-tier universities and, in turn, be guaranteed high-paying jobs in the future.

To address some of these issues, the Japanese government plans to replace the National Center Test with the Common Test for University Admissions, or Common Test, scheduled to be held for the first time in 2021. MEXT hopes that the new Common Test will select “entrants based on a multifaceted methodology that ‘fairly’ evaluates the skills that individuals have built up for themselves,” encouraging critical and independent thinking and deep analysis of problems instead of rote memorization. One means of achieving these goals is the introduction of written sections for mathematics and Japanese language tests. The significance of the new Common Test is enormous. It not only reveals a willingness to adapt to the demands of an ever-more globalized, knowledge-based world, but also signals a reevaluation of deep-seated cultural values, especially those of success, fairness, and individuality.

Sources:

https://borgenproject.org/education-in-japan/

https://wenr.wes.org/2021/02/education-in-japan

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to Japan.

JAPAN

2018 PISA SCORE
520

2015 PISA SCORE
528.7

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

China

Sat, 19 Jun 2021 22:36:41 GMT

The speed of China’s emergence as one of the world’s most important countries in international education has been nothing short of phenomenal. Within two decades, from 1998 to 2017, the number of Chinese students enrolled in degree programs abroad jumped by 590 percent to more than 900,000, making China the largest sending country of international students worldwide by far, according to UNESCO statistics. This massive outflow of international students from the world’s largest country—a nation of 1.4 billion people—has had an unrivaled impact on global higher education.

The presence of large numbers of Chinese students on university campuses in Western countries is now a ubiquitous phenomenon. There are three times more Chinese students enrolled internationally than students from India, the second-largest sending country. The expenditures and tuition fees paid by these students have become an increasingly important economic factor for universities and local economies in countries like the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. In Australia, for instance, 30 percent of all international students were Chinese nationals in 2017. These students generated close to USD$7 billion in onshore revenues helping to make international education Australia’s largest services export.

China’s own education system has simultaneously undergone an unprecedented expansion and modernization. It’s now the world’s largest education system after the number of tertiary students surged sixfold from just 7.4 million in 2000 to nearly 45 million in 2018, while the country’s tertiary gross enrollment rate (GER) spiked from 7.6 percent to 50 percent (compared with a current average GER of 75 percent in high income countries, per UNESCO). By common definitions, China has now achieved universal participation in higher education.

Consider that China is now training more PhD students than the U.S., and that in 2018 the number of scientific, technical, and medical research papers published by Chinese researchers exceeded for the first time those produced by U.S. scholars. China now spends more on research and development than the countries that make up the entire European Union combined, and it is soon expected to overtake the U.S. in research expenditures as well.

Chinese higher education institutions (HEIs) currently pump out around 8 million graduates annually—more graduates than the U.S. and India produce combined. That number is expected to grow by another 300 percent until 2030. Needless to say, this massification of higher education has been accompanied by an exponential growth in the number of HEIs. The BBC reported in 2016 that one new university opened its doors in China each week. Altogether, China now has 514,000 educational institutions and 270 million students enrolled at all levels of education.

What’s more, China’s top universities now provide education of increasingly high quality. Long absent from international university rankings, top-tier universities are now increasingly represented among the top 200 in rankings like those of the Times Higher Education (THE). Fast-ascending flagship institutions like Tsinghua University and Peking University are now considered to be among Asia’s most reputable institutions and appear in the top 30 in both the THE and QS world university rankings. In fact, Chinese universities’ quality improvements and other factors have helped turn China itself into an important destination country of international students from Asia, Africa, and elsewhere.

RAPID ECONOMIC GROWTH

All these developments are part and parcel of China’s spectacular economic growth since the adoption of Deng Xiaoping’s economic liberalization reforms in 1978. No other country in history underwent a more rapid and large-scale process of industrialization than China—an enormous transformation that within decades turned the country from an impoverished agricultural society into an industrial manufacturing powerhouse. Between the 1980s and today, China’s economy expanded at an average rate of approximately 10 percent.

Despite this massive growth, China is still classified as a developing country by most measures. For instance, its GDP per capita—USD$9,770 in 2018—is still comparatively low because of prevailing disparities in wealth distribution in the vast and unevenly developed country. While rising fast, average income levels in China are still comparable to those of Cuba or the Dominican Republic. That said, China in 2011 became the world’s second-largest economy and is on the brink of overtaking the U.S. as the largest economy, if it hasn’t overtaken it already. The country now has the world’s highest number of skyscrapers and the largest airport on the planet.

China’s middle class, likewise, has been growing at a breathtaking pace—a trend that helped fuel the recent leaps in higher education participation and outbound student mobility. By some estimates, the number of urban middle-class households in China—defined as those earning between USD$9,000 and USD$34,000 a year—will increase from just 4 percent in 2000 to 76 percent, or more than 550 million people, by 2022. Closely interrelated, “China’s urban population skyrocketed from 19 percent of the total population in 1980 to 58 percent in 2017.” What is remarkable about this transformation is that it has thus far not affected political stability. Unlike in other East Asian societies like South Korea or Taiwan, where economic modernization was followed by a push for democratization by newly emerging middle classes, China’s Communist Party (CCP) remains firmly in control.

DEMOGRAPHIC DECLINE AND OTHER PROBLEMS

That is not to say that China won’t encounter challenges on its path toward further development. Like other East Asian nations, China is now facing demographic decline and population aging. Despite the abolishment of China’s longstanding and rigid one-child policy in favor of its two-child policy in 2016, the country’s population is expected to begin contracting by 2027 due to factors like decreasing fertility rates, which recently dropped by 12 percent in 2018.

This demographic shift has already resulted in labor shortages with the workforce shrinking by 25 million workers between 2012 and 2017. On the flip side of this shortage of mid-level technicians, growing numbers of university-educated Chinese remain unemployed or underemployed amid an ever-expanding pool of university graduates. Many educated youngsters now find it increasingly hard to find good jobs, because their skills don’t match the needs of the Chinese labor market and, thus, are not in demand. Except for graduates in highly sought-after fields like engineering or information technology, rising numbers of university graduates end up working in the informal sector or in low-paying jobs, potentially a socially destabilizing development.

In response to these problems, the Chinese government is not only pouring massive resources into the modernization of Chinese universities and research institutes, it is also seeking to expand the country’s vocational training system. However, China’s export-driven economy is presently experiencing a significant slowdown amid the trade war with the U.S.—China’s largest trading partner—and a sluggish global economy, and other factors. While current economic growth rates still exceed 6 percent, any economic slowdown with negative implications for employment is of great concern to the CCP, whose political legitimacy largely rests on delivering increased economic prosperity.

Language of Instruction and Academic Calendar

The most common language of instruction in elementary and secondary schools is Mandarin, the main official language of China. In some regions where the majority of students are ethnic minorities, instruction is offered in both Mandarin and the dominant local language. Language policies vary by region. While China officially recognizes 55 ethnic minorities, the Uyghur language was recently banned as a language of instruction in parts of Xinjiang province. The CCP also seeks to curb the use of Tibetan as a language of instruction in Tibet.

In higher education, the language of instruction is predominantly Mandarin, although English-taught programs and courses are becoming increasingly common in an attempt to internationalize China’s higher education system. This is especially so at top-tier institutions that seek to attract more international students, the percentage of which is a criterion in international university rankings.

The academic calendar in both schools and universities runs from September to July. Universities usually divide the academic year into two semesters of 20 weeks each, although a few institutions use the quarter system. In semester systems, the last two weeks are usually reserved for examinations.

COMPULSORY EDUCATION: ELEMENTARY AND LOWER-SECONDARY EDUCATION

China’s Compulsory Education Law stipulates that all children must complete nine years of compulsory education, starting at the age of six or, at the latest, seven. Children can be enrolled in kindergarten at the age of two or three, but preschool education is not compulsory. The government is now pushing to universalize preschool education, however, and pouring sizable resources into the establishment of more kindergartens—the GER in preschool education recently jumped from 70 percent in 2014 to 82 percent in 2018.

Progress in elementary and lower-secondary education has been even more impressive. When China in 1986 adopted its compulsory education law, it set “two basic targets” (liang ji): universal basic education and literacy. The success of this drive can be judged by the fact that the enrollment rate for compulsory education was close to 95 percent in 2018, totaling 1.5 billion elementary and junior high school pupils nationwide. The illiteracy rate, meanwhile, has been reduced to 4.85 percent among those aged 15 or older, although this national average belies considerable regional variation between eastern metropolises and rural western regions. “Wealthy cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai, reported 2014 literacy rates (98.52 percent and 96.85 percent) comparable with those of developed countries. At the other extreme, Tibet’s literacy rate was a mere 60.07 percent in [the] same year, pegging it closer to under-developed countries like Haiti and Zambia.”

Compulsory basic education generally comprises six years of elementary and three years of lower-secondary education and is free of charge at public schools. However, there is some variation between jurisdictions with a tiny number of them having a 5+4 rather than a 6+3 structure. Curricula and standards are set by the MOE in Beijing and then implemented nationwide by provincial and municipal governments.

Most schools are public, but the share of private schools is rising with 35 percent of elementary, junior secondary, and senior secondary schools being privately run as of 2018. In 2003, a law promoting the establishment of more private schools to expand capacity went into effect. According to the 2016 amended version of the law, these schools need to be licensed and comply with official regulations. Except for international schools that teach foreign curricula, Chinese schools follow the national curriculum. Private schools in the compulsory education sector are officially not allowed to operate as for-profit providers but may nevertheless charge tuition fees (which should be used primarily to pay for the school’s expenses); they may also receive subsidies and tax breaks from local governments.

The current curriculum follows the ministry’s Guidelines for Compulsory Education Curriculum Reforms, implemented nationwide in 2005. It encompasses moral education, Chinese language and literature, mathematics, art and music, and physical education. The third grade curriculum introduces science, a foreign language (generally English), and “comprehensive practice”, a subject that may entail community service, information technology education, or basic vocational education.

Pupils may remain within the same school or transfer to a local junior high school after the completion of elementary education. Either way, there is no selective entrance examination to access lower-secondary education in public schools (private schools may have different types of admission criteria). Entrance examinations existed until the 1990s but have been eliminated, so that children are now mandatorily enrolled in local schools based on residence.

The curriculum at this level expands on the basic subjects taught in elementary schools to include the additional subjects of history and geography, biology, physics, and chemistry. The foreign language taught at junior high schools is most commonly English, though schools may also offer Japanese or Russian, and students at some schools have the option of learning a second foreign language. There is no junior high school graduation examination. As long as pupils pass ninth grade, which generally means a score of 60/100 in core subjects, they are awarded the Compulsory Education Certificate (yiwujiaoyu zhengshu).

SENIOR SECONDARY EDUCATION

There are two types of schools at the senior secondary level: general academic high schools (gaozhong) and vocational high schools (zhongzhuan). The length of the regular program is three years, whereas three to four years may be required for vocational programs.

General High Schools

General high schools—of which there were 13,600 in 2017—enroll 60 percent of the total upper-secondary student population. They admitted over 8 million new students in addition to 23.7 million already enrolled in the same year.

To be admitted, students must pass an entrance examination (zhongkao) that is held during the final year of junior secondary school, in June or July of each year. While the MOE sets overall guidelines for the written exam, the exam is administered by local educational authorities and not standardized nationwide. It tests knowledge of the junior secondary curriculum and covers subjects, such as Chinese, mathematics, foreign language, political education, physics, and chemistry. Students must also pass a physical fitness test.

The zhongkao is an important benchmark in Chinese education. Educational authorities in the different jurisdictions use the test results to assign students to different schools with high grades being required for admission into top schools. Those with low scores can usually only be admitted into vocational schools. Overall progression rates from junior to senior secondary education, including both general and vocational tracks, have increased strongly in recent years, with 95 percent of lower-secondary graduates progressing to upper-secondary education as of 2017.

Once admitted, students traditionally had to choose between a science stream and an arts stream at the beginning of the 11th grade, after studying a general curriculum in 10th grade. However, the curriculum has recently been revamped to allow for greater customization—a change currently being phased in, in the different provinces. The reform introduces elective subjects and eliminates the practice of streaming since students can now elect subjects from both streams.

The old model was called 3+1, a formula that referred to the subjects later tested in the gaokao university entrance examinations. That is, three compulsory subjects (3)—Chinese, mathematics, and a foreign language, as well as one pre-set subject combination (1) of three subjects in the specialization stream: physics, chemistry, and biology in the case of science; and politics, history, and geography in the case of arts. In addition to these core subjects, there were other mandatory subjects, including arts, physical education, technology, and comprehensive practice. All these subjects were examined, but only the compulsory core subjects and the subjects from the specialization stream were tested in the gaokao. In this sense, the streaming concept largely predetermined which type of university programs graduates entered.

Under the current reforms, provinces will adopt one of two models referred to as “3+3” and “3+1+2.” The mandatory general subjects remain the same in both cases. But under the 3+3 model, students now can freely choose three electives from chemistry, biology, physics, geography, politics, and history. Students will typically choose their subjects based on the admission requirements for desired university programs. In addition, students can choose a number of electives from categories like vocational subjects, arts, or physical education.

The 3+1+2 model, on the other hand, is a partial reform that was adopted out of necessity. Since the new subject combinations will result in more classes and, thus, a need for additional teachers, students enrolled under this model will have fewer choices. They must choose between physics or history (1) and two electives from biology, chemistry, geography, and politics (2).

As shown in the graphic below, the new reforms have already been implemented in Shanghai and Zhejiang province. In other jurisdictions, the reforms will not be rolled out before 2022. Schools are hiring aggressively to accommodate the upcoming changes; retired teachers are also encouraged to come back to work to ensure a smooth transition.

To obtain a high school diploma, students must meet a minimum requirement of 144 credits and also pass a national graduation examination. This exam used to be called the General Examination for High School Students (huikao or joint exam) across most of China, but it has been phased out in recent years and will soon be completely replaced with the Academic Proficiency Test (APT, xueye shuiping ceshi) in all jurisdictions.

This graduation exam is based on the national curriculum set by the MOE but administered by local education departments. While the 3+x core subjects are examined at the end of grade 12, students can sit for examinations in the other subjects earlier and take the exam in parts, once they complete the necessary credit requirements in specific subjects. Graduates are issued a certificate of high school graduation.

Source:

https://wenr.wes.org/2019/12/education-in-china-3

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to China.

CHINA

2018 PISA SCORE
578.7

2015 PISA SCORE
514.3

PISA 2018 Breakdown

Snapshot of Student Performance

India

Thu, 17 Jun 2021 08:12:45 GMT

VIDEO GALLERY

A few highlights from Keith's travels to India.

INDIA

2018 PISA SCORE
*Did not participate

2015 PISA SCORE
*Did not participate